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Recently, the Prime Minister of India presented a Kalamkari Mahabharata painting as a diplomatic gift to the President of France, highlighting India's rich traditional textile heritage, artistic excellence, and centuries-old craftsmanship.

Introduction

Kalamkari is a renowned form of hand-painted and block-printed cotton textile art that originated in Andhra Pradesh. It flourished during the Qutb Shahi rule of Golconda in the 16th and 17th centuries, when the region became an important centre of textile production and international trade.

The word "Kalamkari" is derived from the Persian words "Kalam", meaning pen, and "Kari", meaning craftsmanship. Thus, the term literally means "craftsmanship done with a pen." Over the centuries, Kalamkari has evolved into one of India's finest traditional art forms, blending painting, dyeing, storytelling, and textile design.

Techniques of Kalamkari Painting

• The preparation of a Kalamkari painting is an elaborate and completely handcrafted process that involves several stages. Initially, the cotton fabric is soaked in a mixture of buffalo milk and natural astringents to prevent the colours from spreading. The cloth is then dried in sunlight before the artist begins the drawing.

• The outlines of the design are created using a mordant in shades of red, black, brown, and violet, after which the fabric is immersed in an alizarin bath to develop the colours. Wax is applied to portions that should remain undyed, and the cloth is dipped into indigo dye. After removing the wax, the remaining sections are carefully coloured by hand.

• The artists use a bamboo or date-palm stick fitted with fine hair as a pen to create intricate designs. The colours are prepared entirely from natural dyes extracted from roots, leaves, flowers, bark, seeds, and minerals such as iron and copper, making Kalamkari an eco-friendly and sustainable art form.

Major Styles of Kalamkari Painting

Srikalahasti Kalamkari

The Srikalahasti style originated in Srikalahasti of Tirupati district, Andhra Pradesh, and is executed completely by freehand drawing using the traditional kalam (pen). Every design is individually created by the artist, making each painting unique.

This style is closely associated with temple traditions and primarily depicts episodes from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagavata Purana, along with Hindu deities, temple architecture, and religious iconography. The paintings are characterised by their fine detailing, expressive figures, and narrative storytelling.

Machilipatnam (Pedana) Kalamkari

The Machilipatnam style, also known as Pedana Kalamkari, developed in Pedana near Machilipatnam. Unlike the Srikalahasti tradition, this style mainly employs wooden block-printing techniques, making it suitable for large-scale textile production.

This form reflects a strong Persian artistic influence, which emerged under the patronage of the Golconda Sultanate and later the Mughals. The designs mainly feature floral motifs, geometric patterns, creepers, leaves, cartwheels, parrots, peacocks, and decorative borders, making it highly popular for fabrics, garments, furnishings, and decorative textiles.

Distinctive Features

Kalamkari is recognised for its exclusive use of natural vegetable dyes, handcrafted production techniques, and cotton fabric. The art combines the traditions of painting, dyeing, and textile craftsmanship, while avoiding the use of synthetic colours. Because every stage is carried out manually, each Kalamkari creation possesses a unique artistic identity.

Apart from its aesthetic value, Kalamkari also serves as a medium of visual storytelling, preserving India's religious traditions, mythology, and cultural heritage through intricate illustrations.

Geographical Indication (GI) Status

Both Srikalahasti Kalamkari and Machilipatnam (Pedana) Kalamkari have received the Geographical Indication (GI) Tag, recognising their distinctive regional identity and protecting the authenticity of this traditional craft.

Significance

Kalamkari represents the harmonious blend of art, culture, religion, and sustainable craftsmanship. It preserves India's ancient storytelling traditions while providing livelihood opportunities to thousands of artisans. As an eco-friendly textile tradition based on natural dyes and handcraftsmanship, Kalamkari has gained international recognition and continues to be an important symbol of India's rich cultural heritage.

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Recently, a scientific study revealed that microplastic pollution is reaching the ecologically sensitive Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary, carrying heavy metals into the Brahmani River and posing a serious threat to its aquatic ecosystem.

About Brahmani River

The Brahmani River is one of the major east-flowing rivers of eastern India, flowing predominantly through the state of Odisha. It is formed by the confluence of the Sankh River and the South Koel River near the industrial city of Rourkela in Odisha.

Both the Sankh and South Koel rivers originate from the Chota Nagpur Plateau, making the Brahmani one of the important river systems draining this plateau towards the Bay of Bengal.

River Basin

The Brahmani River Basin extends across the states of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha before finally draining into the Bay of Bengal. It plays a significant role in supporting agriculture, industries, and biodiversity across eastern India.

The basin is bounded by the Chota Nagpur Plateau in the north, the Mahanadi River Basin in the west and south, and the Bay of Bengal in the east.

Tributaries

The principal tributaries of the Brahmani River include the Sankh, South Koel, Tikra, and Karo rivers. Among these, the Sankh and South Koel are the two headstreams that give rise to the Brahmani River.

Geographical Features

The Brahmani River is one of the few rivers that cut across the Eastern Ghats. During its course, it has carved a minor gorge at Rengali in Odisha, where the Rengali Dam has been constructed for irrigation, flood control, and hydroelectric power generation.

As the river approaches the coast, it forms the Brahmani Delta, which supports extensive mangrove forests, estuaries, and wetlands before merging with the Bay of Bengal.

Ecological Significance

The Brahmani Delta is home to the Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary, one of India's most important mangrove ecosystems. The sanctuary is internationally renowned for its population of estuarine (saltwater) crocodiles, diverse birdlife, sea turtles, and rich coastal biodiversity.

The river also sustains numerous aquatic species and provides ecological support to the surrounding mangrove ecosystem, making it an important component of India's coastal environmental security.

Environmental Concerns

Recent studies have detected microplastics carrying toxic heavy metals in the Brahmani River, indicating growing pollution even within ecologically sensitive areas like Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary. Such contamination threatens aquatic biodiversity, mangrove ecosystems, and the overall health of the river basin, highlighting the urgent need for effective pollution control and river conservation measures.

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Recently, Uzbekistan officially joined the New Development Bank (NDB) as its 10th member, becoming the first Central Asian country to join this BRICS-led multilateral development institution.

About the New Development Bank (NDB)

• The New Development Bank (NDB) is a multilateral development bank established by the BRICS countries—Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa.

• The decision to establish the bank was taken during the 6th BRICS Summit held at Fortaleza, Brazil, in 2014, and the bank became operational in 2015.

• The headquarters of the NDB is located in Shanghai, China. Its core objective is to mobilise financial resources for infrastructure and sustainable development projects in BRICS countries as well as other Emerging Market and Developing Economies (EMDEs).

Capital Structure

The authorised capital of the New Development Bank is USD 100 billion. Out of this, the initial subscribed capital was USD 50 billion, contributed equally by the five founding BRICS members, reflecting the principle of equal partnership among them.

Governance and Voting System

• The governance structure of the NDB differs significantly from traditional multilateral institutions such as the World Bank.

• Every member country has one vote, ensuring equal representation irrespective of its financial contribution. The bank does not provide veto power to any member, thereby promoting collective and democratic decision-making.

• Although voting is not linked directly to capital contribution, the combined voting share of the five founding BRICS members is maintained above 55% to preserve the institution's founding character and governance balance.

Membership

• The Articles of Agreement of the NDB permit all United Nations member countries to become members. Since 2021, the bank has gradually expanded beyond its original BRICS membership.

• The founding members are Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa. The bank has subsequently admitted Bangladesh and the United Arab Emirates in 2021, Egypt in 2023, Algeria in 2025, and Uzbekistan in 2026, taking the total membership to 10 countries.

• Additionally, Uruguay, Colombia, and Ethiopia have been approved by the Board of Governors and will become full members after completing the formal accession process.

Significance of Uzbekistan's Membership

The admission of Uzbekistan marks the first participation of a Central Asian country in the NDB, significantly expanding the bank's geographical reach into a strategically important region.

Uzbekistan's entry strengthens the NDB's role in financing infrastructure development in landlocked and developing economies. It also reinforces the voice of the Global South in the global financial architecture and supports the increasing use of local currency financing, thereby reducing dependence on the US dollar in development financing.

Importance of the New Development Bank

The New Development Bank has emerged as an important alternative source of development finance, complementing institutions such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). It promotes sustainable infrastructure, South-South cooperation, and inclusive economic development, while providing greater representation and decision-making power to emerging economies.

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Recently, a scientist from the Botanical Survey of India (BSI) discovered a new species of wild brinjal, named Solanum pandeyi, from the Middle Andaman Island in the Andaman and Nicobar archipelago.

About Solanum pandeyi

Solanum pandeyi is a newly identified species of wild brinjal belonging to the genus Solanum.

It was discovered in the evergreen forests of Middle Andaman, where it grows naturally along forest edges and open areas. Locally, it is known as the wild orange eggplant.

The species closely resembles Solanum lasiocarpum and belongs to the Leptostemonum clade of the Solanum genus, a group that includes several spiny species of brinjal and related plants.

Uses of Solanum pandeyi

The plant has long been used by the Great Andamanese, an indigenous Negrito tribe, for both food and traditional medicine. The roots and seeds are used to treat tooth infections, while the ripe fruits are combined with jaggery, chilli, garlic, ginger, and salt to prepare a sweet-and-sour sauce, which is popular among the Ranchi and Bengali settler communities living on the islands.

Significance of the Discovery

The discovery of Solanum pandeyi enriches India's plant biodiversity and highlights the Andaman and Nicobar Islands as an important centre of endemism and species diversity. It also underscores the importance of taxonomic research, biodiversity conservation, and the documentation of traditional indigenous knowledge for the sustainable use of biological resources.

About the Botanical Survey of India (BSI)

The Botanical Survey of India (BSI) is India's apex taxonomic and floristic research institution functioning under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC). It was established on 13 February 1890 to survey and document the country's plant diversity.

The primary objective of the BSI is to provide the scientific foundation for plant identification, taxonomy, conservation, documentation, and sustainable utilisation of India's rich floral wealth.

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Recently, the first round of high-level talks between United States and Iranian officials was held in Switzerland, reaffirming the country's longstanding role as a neutral venue for international diplomacy.

About Switzerland

• Switzerland is a landlocked, mountainous country located in Western and Central Europe. It shares its borders with Germany to the north, France to the west, Italy to the south, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east.

• The capital city of Switzerland is Bern, while Zurich is its largest city and financial centre.

• Switzerland is not a member of either the European Union (EU) or the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

• However, it actively participates in several international organisations and is globally recognised for its policy of permanent neutrality, making it a preferred location for peace negotiations and international diplomacy.

Geographical Features of Switzerland

Relief and Mountain Ranges

• Switzerland is dominated by the Alps, which occupy nearly 60% of the country's area and form its southern region.

• The Jura Mountains lie along the north-western border with France, while the Swiss Plateau between these mountain systems contains most of the country's population, industries, and agricultural activities.

• The highest peak in Switzerland is Monte Rosa (Dufourspitze), located in the Pennine Alps, with an elevation of 4,634 metres.

Rivers and Lakes

Switzerland is often referred to as the "Water Tower of Europe" because several major European rivers originate in the Alps. These include the Rhine, Rhône, Inn (a tributary of the Danube), and Ticino (a tributary of the Po River).

The country is also known for its numerous freshwater lakes. The two largest are Lake Geneva, which is shared with France, and Lake Neuchâtel, the largest lake located entirely within Switzerland.

Climate

Switzerland experiences a temperate climate, but weather conditions vary considerably due to differences in altitude and topography. Its climate is influenced by four major European air masses, namely the North Atlantic Drift, cold Arctic air, continental air masses, and Mediterranean air currents. These interactions produce cold, snowy winters in the mountains, mild summers in the plateau region, and diverse climatic conditions across the country.

Importance of Switzerland

Switzerland is internationally renowned for its political neutrality, stable democratic system, and strong financial sector. It hosts the headquarters of several major international organisations, including the United Nations Office at Geneva, the World Health Organization (WHO), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Labour Organization (ILO), and the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). These institutions have made Switzerland one of the world's foremost centres for global governance, humanitarian diplomacy, and international negotiations.

Introduction

Recent discussions on India's growth strategy have highlighted that predictable taxation, transparent regulations, and efficient trade facilitation are essential for attracting long-term domestic and foreign investment. These reforms are considered crucial for achieving the vision of Viksit Bharat@2047, which aims to transform India into a developed nation.

What is Policy Predictability?

• Policy predictability refers to a governance framework in which laws, taxation policies, regulations, and administrative decisions remain clear, consistent, transparent, and stable over time. Such a framework enables businesses to assess risks accurately, make long-term investment decisions, and integrate efficiently into Global Value Chains (GVCs).

• India aspires to become a developed economy by 2047, which requires sustaining an annual GDP growth rate of around 8–9%.

• Achieving this target would require increasing the investment rate from nearly 30% of GDP to about 40% of GDP. Since domestic savings alone cannot finance this expansion, India must attract larger flows of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI), and expand its exports. Investors, however, seek not only a large market but also policy certainty, as uncertainty raises the cost of doing business and discourages long-term investment.

Key Issues and Challenges

Tax Uncertainty

• One of the major challenges is the persistence of tax uncertainty, arising from frequent disputes and varying interpretations of tax laws. Prolonged litigation creates uncertainty for investors and adversely affects business confidence.

• High-profile disputes such as the Vodafone retrospective taxation case and Tiger Global's capital gains tax dispute illustrate the consequences of unpredictable tax administration.

• India's tax rates on Foreign Portfolio Investors (15–24%) are also comparatively higher than those in several competing emerging economies, reducing India's attractiveness as an investment destination.

• In addition, lengthy dispute resolution mechanisms increase compliance costs, lock up capital, and weaken the country's Ease of Doing Business.

Customs and Regulatory Uncertainty

• Uncertainty also exists in customs administration, particularly regarding the classification of imported goods.

• Different interpretations of categories such as Completely Knocked Down (CKD), Semi-Knocked Down (SKD), and Completely Built Units (CBU) often result in inconsistent regulatory decisions.

• The differing advance rulings issued to Volvo and VinFast on the import of electric vehicle components demonstrate the absence of uniform classification standards. The lack of publicly available and consistent advance rulings further reduces regulatory transparency.

Trade Facilitation and Digital Integration

Efficient international trade requires seamless coordination among multiple government agencies. At present, importers interact separately with Customs, the Directorate General of Foreign Trade (DGFT), the Goods and Services Tax (GST) Network, banks, and several border regulatory agencies.

This fragmented system results in duplicate documentation, repeated registrations, and delays in customs clearance. Delays in importing raw materials and machinery increase working capital requirements and reduce the competitiveness of Indian exports.

Risk-Based Customs Administration

India's customs administration continues to rely substantially on physical inspection, leading to delays in cargo clearance and higher transaction costs. The limited use of data analytics, inadequate cargo scanning infrastructure, and insufficient testing facilities further slow the clearance process.

Globally, many countries have adopted risk-based customs administration, where compliant traders benefit from faster clearances while enforcement agencies focus only on high-risk consignments. India's adoption of such systems remains limited.

Recent Government Initiatives

• The Government of India has undertaken several reforms to improve policy certainty and trade facilitation. The National Single Window System (NSWS) has been introduced to simplify business approvals through digital integration.

• Faceless Customs Assessment has enhanced transparency by reducing physical interaction between officials and businesses.

• The Authorised Economic Operator (AEO) Programme has been expanded to facilitate trusted traders through faster customs clearances. The PM Gati Shakti National Master Plan seeks to improve logistics efficiency through integrated infrastructure planning.

• Recent Union Budget announcements have also proposed interconnected digital approval systems, expansion of the Customs Integrated System, wider use of non-intrusive cargo scanning, and extension of the validity period of advance rulings. These initiatives complement broader programmes such as Make in India, the National Logistics Policy, and the government's efforts to improve the Ease of Doing Business through digitisation and regulatory simplification.

Way Forward

• India must move beyond isolated reforms and establish a stable and predictable policy environment to sustain high economic growth and attract long-term investment. Tax policies should remain consistent, avoiding retrospective taxation and ambiguous interpretations. Faster dispute resolution through strengthening appellate institutions and reducing litigation is equally important.

• A truly integrated National Single Window System, based on the "submit once" principle, should facilitate seamless data sharing among Customs, DGFT, GST, Corporate Affairs, and banks.

• The government should also publish uniform regulatory guidelines for CKD, SKD, and CBU classifications, including clear rules for multi-port and split consignments, thereby ensuring consistency in customs administration.

• Greater adoption of AI-driven risk assessment, modern scanning technologies, and non-intrusive inspection systems would improve customs efficiency while reducing delays. Publishing advance rulings, along with reasons for deviations, would enhance transparency, whereas clearly defined service delivery standards for regulatory approvals, customs assessments, and appeals would improve accountability.

Conclusion

A predictable policy environment is a fundamental prerequisite for sustained economic growth, higher investment, and stronger global competitiveness. By ensuring stable taxation, transparent regulations, efficient trade facilitation, and technology-driven governance, India can significantly improve investor confidence and accelerate progress towards the vision of Viksit Bharat@2047.

Introduction

India's proposed USD 2 billion investment in indigenously manufactured drones marks a significant milestone in defence modernisation and the promotion of Aatmanirbhar Bharat in the defence sector. Beyond strengthening indigenous manufacturing, the initiative reflects a broader transformation in military strategy, shifting from reliance on high-cost platforms such as fighter aircraft and tanks towards low-cost, expendable, and technologically adaptable unmanned systems. However, realising the full benefits of this investment requires comprehensive reforms in India's defence procurement framework, which was originally designed for conventional military platforms with long service lives.

Changing Nature of Modern Warfare

Rise of Cost-Effective Drone Warfare

• Recent conflicts have demonstrated that micro drones, nano drones, and other low-cost unmanned aerial systems (UAS) have become indispensable components of modern warfare.

• Countries such as Ukraine, Russia, and Iran have successfully employed large numbers of inexpensive drones for reconnaissance, surveillance, precision strikes, and electronic warfare.

• The greatest advantage of drones lies in their highly favourable cost-benefit ratio. In many situations, the cost of intercepting a drone exceeds the cost of manufacturing it, making mass deployment both economically and strategically advantageous.

• Consequently, military superiority increasingly depends upon the ability to deploy large numbers of affordable and adaptable systems rather than relying exclusively on a limited fleet of expensive military assets.

Growing Importance of Attritable Systems

Modern battlefields are witnessing a shift from preserving every military platform to accepting the planned loss of attritable systems—low-cost assets that can be rapidly replaced without significantly affecting operational capability.

This emerging doctrine prioritises quantity, adaptability, and rapid replacement, making attritable drones a central feature of contemporary military strategy.

Innovation Through Civil-Military Collaboration

Role of Civilian Technologies

Much of the innovation in drone technology originates in the civilian sector. Commercial drones can be modified for military purposes at relatively low cost, enabling armed forces to adopt new technologies rapidly.

Ukraine's extensive use of First-Person View (FPV) drones equipped with explosive payloads illustrates how commercially available technologies can be transformed into highly effective military systems. Such developments increasingly blur the distinction between civilian innovation and military applications.

Importance of Research and Development Ecosystems

The remarkable growth of China's drone industry demonstrates the importance of close collaboration among industry, academic institutions, and the armed forces.

A strong Research and Development (R&D) ecosystem accelerates technological innovation, shortens product development cycles, and enables manufacturers to respond quickly to evolving operational requirements.

Challenges in Tactical Drone Procurement

Rapid Technological Obsolescence

Unlike conventional military platforms that remain operational for several decades, tactical drones become obsolete within relatively short periods because of rapid advances in electronic warfare (EW), signal interception, and jamming technologies.

Adversaries continually develop countermeasures, requiring drone systems to undergo frequent upgrades and modifications. For instance, during the Russia–Ukraine conflict, the replacement of conventional radio communication with fibre-optic control systems demonstrated how quickly battlefield technologies evolve.

Limitations of Traditional Procurement Models

India's conventional procurement framework is primarily transaction-based, assuming that military capability can be acquired through one-time purchases.

While this approach is suitable for fighter aircraft, warships, and armoured vehicles, it is inadequate for technologies such as drones that require continuous software updates, hardware improvements, and rapid technological adaptation throughout their operational life.

India's Existing Procurement Framework

Positive Reforms

India has already introduced several reforms to improve procurement flexibility. The Defence Acquisition Procedure (DAP) permits procurement of Commercial-Off-The-Shelf (COTS) technologies, while the Defence Procurement Manual (DPM) provides greater financial flexibility for repairs, maintenance, and upgrades.

These reforms acknowledge the growing importance of technological modernisation and represent important steps towards building a more responsive procurement system.

Remaining Gaps

Despite these improvements, India's procurement system continues to focus predominantly on the purchase of products rather than the maintenance of long-term capabilities.

The present framework remains largely transactional, with limited emphasis on continuous collaboration between the armed forces and defence manufacturers.

Towards a Partnership-Based Procurement Model

Managed Service Contracts

A more effective procurement strategy would involve establishing long-term managed service contracts between the armed forces and drone manufacturers.

Such arrangements would provide continuous maintenance, regular software and hardware upgrades, assured logistics support, and enhanced surge production capacity during emergencies or armed conflicts.

Benefits of Long-Term Strategic Partnerships

Long-term partnerships would provide demand predictability for domestic manufacturers while ensuring sustained operational readiness for the armed forces.

Continuous collaboration between industry and the military would facilitate rapid technological upgrades, improve innovation, strengthen indigenous manufacturing capabilities, and enable faster responses to changing battlefield conditions.

Significance for India

India's investment in domestic drone manufacturing supports the objectives of Aatmanirbhar Bharat, strengthens the indigenous defence industrial base, reduces dependence on imports, and enhances national security.

It also creates opportunities for private sector participation, start-up innovation, and dual-use technologies, thereby contributing to employment generation, technological advancement, and defence exports.

Way Forward

• India must complement increased investment in drone manufacturing with comprehensive reforms in defence procurement.The focus should shift from one-time acquisitions to capability-based procurement, supported by continuous technological upgrades, strong industry-academia-military collaboration, enhanced R&D investment, and simplified procurement procedures.

• Building a robust ecosystem for artificial intelligence, autonomous systems, electronic warfare, and advanced drone technologies will enable India to remain competitive in future warfare.

Conclusion

India's USD 2 billion investment in indigenous drone production reflects a clear understanding of the rapidly changing character of modern warfare. However, acquiring drones alone is insufficient to ensure long-term military effectiveness. Sustainable defence capability requires procurement systems that promote continuous innovation, technological adaptability, and strategic partnerships. By transitioning from traditional transaction-based procurement to a partnership-driven model, India can develop a resilient defence ecosystem capable of meeting the evolving demands of future conflicts while strengthening its position as a global leader in defence manufacturing.