Latest News

The ongoing crisis in West Asia and a sharp decline in saffron production in Iran, the world's largest saffron producer, have significantly increased the global demand for Kashmir saffron. This has created new export opportunities for saffron growers in Jammu & Kashmir.

About Kashmir Saffron

Kashmir saffron is one of the world's finest and most expensive spices, popularly known as "Red Gold" because of its deep crimson colour, unique aroma, rich flavour, and excellent colouring properties. It is obtained from the dried stigmas of the flower Crocus sativus and has been cultivated in Kashmir for centuries.

India produces around 90% of its saffron in Kashmir, making the region the country's primary saffron-producing area.

Geographical Distribution

Kashmir saffron is mainly cultivated in the Pampore region of Pulwama district, often referred to as the "Saffron Town of Kashmir." It is also grown in nearby districts such as Budgam, Srinagar, and Kishtwar, where suitable climatic and soil conditions support its cultivation.

Geographical Indication (GI) Tag

Kashmir saffron received the prestigious Geographical Indication (GI) Tag in 2020.

The GI tag recognises its unique quality, geographical origin, and traditional cultivation practices, helping protect it from imitation products while enhancing its market value both in India and abroad.

Characteristics of Kashmir Saffron

The saffron plant produces beautiful purple flowers, each containing three bright orange-red stigmas. These stigmas are carefully handpicked and dried to produce saffron.

Kashmir saffron is distinguished by its high crocin content, which gives it a deep natural colour, high safranal content responsible for its strong aroma, and high picrocrocin content, which imparts its characteristic bitter taste. These qualities make it superior to many other varieties available globally.

Types of Kashmir Saffron

Lachha Saffron

Lachha saffron consists of dried stigmas attached to the floral style. Since it undergoes minimal processing, it retains its natural aroma, flavour, and medicinal properties, making it highly valued.

Mongra Saffron

Mongra saffron is prepared by separating only the deep red stigmas from the flower. It is considered the highest quality saffron, possessing the richest aroma, strongest colouring ability, and highest market value.

Guchhi Saffron

Guchhi saffron is the least processed form, where the stigma remains attached to the complete floral structure. It is comparatively less refined than Mongra saffron but continues to be used for traditional purposes.

Climatic Requirements

Altitude

Kashmir saffron grows best at an elevation of 1,500–2,000 metres above mean sea level, where cool climatic conditions favour flowering.

Temperature

The crop requires extreme seasonal variation. Summer temperatures should generally not exceed 35–40°C, while winter temperatures may fall to –15°C to –20°C. Such conditions are essential for proper dormancy and flowering.

Climate

Saffron thrives in dry, moderate, and continental climatic conditions. It requires dry weather during flowering, while excessive rainfall or humidity can adversely affect both quality and yield.

Soil Requirements

Kashmir saffron performs best in well-drained loamy, sandy, and calcareous soils.

It prefers slightly acidic to neutral soils with a pH range of 5.5–8.5, which provides favourable conditions for root development and healthy flowering.

Economic Importance

Kashmir saffron is one of India's most valuable cash crops and provides livelihoods to thousands of farming families in the Kashmir Valley.

It is widely used in the food industry, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, perfumes, and traditional Ayurvedic medicine. The recent rise in global demand has further strengthened its export potential and increased farmers' incomes.

Latest News

Recently, 15 countries from Africa, Asia, Europe, the Caribbean, and the Pacific adopted the Mombasa Declaration during the 11th Our Ocean Conference (OOC) in Mombasa, Kenya to strengthen global cooperation against Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing.

About the Mombasa Declaration

The Mombasa Declaration is an international agreement adopted by 15 countries to enhance global efforts in combating Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing, which has become one of the greatest threats to marine biodiversity, sustainable fisheries, and coastal livelihoods.

The declaration is named after the Kenyan city of Mombasa, where the 11th Our Ocean Conference (OOC) 2026 was held. It aims to improve transparency, accountability, and international cooperation in the fisheries sector by promoting better governance and information sharing.

Objectives of the Mombasa Declaration

• The declaration seeks to strengthen global fisheries governance by improving access to reliable information on fishing vessels, vessel ownership, licensing, and operational activities.

• It encourages countries to enhance data sharing, improve monitoring and surveillance, and strengthen law enforcement mechanisms to effectively identify and prevent illegal fishing activities.

• Its broader objective is to safeguard marine ecosystems, ensure sustainable fisheries, and protect the livelihoods of millions of people who depend on marine resources.

Countries that Signed the Declaration

The declaration was signed by 15 countries, namely:

• Belgium

• Cameroon

• Chile

• Dominican Republic

• France

• Gambia

• Ghana

• Guinea

• Liberia

• Panama

• Papua New Guinea

• Peru

• Republic of the Congo

• Somalia

• South Korea

These countries represent regions across Africa, Asia, Europe, the Caribbean, and the Pacific, reflecting broad international support for tackling illegal fishing.

Focus on Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing

The primary aim of the declaration is to combat Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing.

Illegal Fishing

It refers to fishing activities carried out without permission, in violation of national laws or international conservation measures.

Unreported Fishing

It involves fishing activities that are not reported or are falsely reported to the relevant national or regional authorities.

Unregulated Fishing

It refers to fishing conducted in areas or for fish stocks where no effective conservation or management measures exist, or by vessels operating outside established regulatory frameworks.

IUU fishing contributes to overfishing, destroys marine habitats, causes huge economic losses, threatens food security, and undermines the livelihoods of legitimate fishing communities.

Connection with the Global Charter for Fisheries Transparency

The Mombasa Declaration supports the implementation of the Global Charter for Fisheries Transparency, which provides 10 policy principles to improve fisheries governance.

The charter promotes low-cost governance reforms, including:

• Modernisation of fishing vessel registries

• Publication of fishing licences and authorisations

• Transparency in vessel ownership

• Public access to fisheries information

• Improved international cooperation and monitoring

These measures are intended to make global fisheries more transparent and accountable.

Our Ocean Conference (OOC)

The Our Ocean Conference (OOC) is a major international platform dedicated to promoting the conservation and sustainable use of oceans.

It was launched in 2014 by the U.S. Department of State under the leadership of former U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry.

The conference brings together governments, international organisations, businesses, academic institutions, civil society organisations, and NGOs to mobilise commitments for protecting marine ecosystems.

Since its inception, the conference has generated more than 2,600 voluntary commitments worth over USD 160 billion, making it one of the world's most influential platforms for ocean governance.

Major Focus Areas of the Our Ocean Conference

The conference focuses on six major themes that are central to global ocean sustainability:

• Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)

• Sustainable Blue Economy

• Climate Change

• Maritime Security

• Sustainable Fisheries

• Marine Pollution

These themes aim to balance economic development with the long-term conservation of marine resources.

2026 Our Ocean Conference

The 11th Our Ocean Conference was held in Mombasa, Kenya, marking the first time the conference was organised on the African continent.

The theme of the conference was:

"Our Ocean, Our Heritage, Our Future."

The event highlighted Africa's growing role in marine conservation, blue economy development, and sustainable ocean governance.

Importance of the Mombasa Declaration

The declaration strengthens international cooperation against Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing, improves transparency in fisheries management, and supports the sustainable use of marine resources.

It also contributes to achieving SDG 14 (Life Below Water) by promoting responsible fisheries, protecting marine biodiversity, and ensuring food security for coastal communities across the world.

Latest News

Recently, the National Rainfed Area Authority (NRAA) organised a meeting to discuss the Draft National Technical Guidelines (NTG) for Improved Watershed Management under the REWARD Programme. The guidelines aim to promote scientific, climate-resilient, and sustainable watershed management across India.

About the REWARD Programme

The REWARD Programme (Rejuvenating Watersheds for Agricultural Resilience through Innovative Development) is a watershed development programme launched by the Department of Land Resources (DoLR), Ministry of Rural Development, to improve the management of rainfed areas through modern technology, scientific planning, and institutional capacity building.

The programme is currently being implemented in the states of Karnataka and Odisha as pilot states and serves as a model for improving watershed development practices across the country.

Duration

The programme is being implemented for the period 2021–2026.

Aim of the Programme

The primary aim of the REWARD Programme is to introduce modern and scientific watershed management practices within the Department of Land Resources and the participating states.

It seeks to improve the efficiency, sustainability, and climate resilience of watershed development programmes while enhancing the livelihoods of farmers living in rainfed regions.

World Bank Assistance

The programme is being implemented with financial and technical assistance from the World Bank.

The World Bank supports the programme through an innovative financing mechanism known as Program for Results (PforR).

Program for Results (PforR) Financing

Unlike conventional project financing, the Program for Results (PforR) approach links financial assistance to the achievement of pre-defined development outcomes.

Under this model, the World Bank reimburses funds only after the Government achieves specific Disbursement Linked Indicators (DLIs), thereby promoting greater accountability, transparency, and performance-based implementation.

Objectives of the REWARD Programme

• The programme seeks to strengthen the capacities of national and state institutions to adopt improved watershed management practices.

• It also aims to increase the climate resilience of farmers, improve water conservation, enhance soil health, and support the development of sustainable agricultural value chains in selected watershed areas.

• By improving natural resource management, the programme contributes to higher agricultural productivity, better water security, and sustainable rural livelihoods.

Major Focus Areas

1. Strengthening Institutions and Policy Framework

One of the major focus areas is to strengthen institutional capacity at the national and state levels by improving planning, governance, monitoring, and policy support for watershed development programmes.

The programme also promotes the adoption of modern technologies, digital monitoring systems, and evidence-based decision-making for better implementation.

2. Science-Based Watershed Development

The second major focus area is the adoption of science-based watershed management practices to improve climate resilience and enhance farmers' livelihoods.

This includes the use of remote sensing, GIS mapping, hydrological modelling, soil and water conservation measures, and climate-smart agricultural practices to ensure sustainable management of natural resources.

What is Watershed Management?

• A watershed is a geographical area in which all rainfall and surface runoff drain into a common river, lake, or stream.

• Watershed management refers to the integrated planning and management of land, water, vegetation, and other natural resources within a watershed to conserve soil, improve groundwater recharge, reduce erosion, and increase agricultural productivity.

• It is particularly important in rainfed and drought-prone regions, where efficient management of water resources directly improves agricultural resilience and rural livelihoods.

Role of the National Rainfed Area Authority (NRAA)

The National Rainfed Area Authority (NRAA) functions under the Department of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare.

It provides technical guidance, policy support, and strategic planning for the sustainable development of rainfed agriculture, natural resource management, and watershed development across India.

Significance of the REWARD Programme

• The programme strengthens India's efforts towards climate-resilient agriculture by improving water availability, conserving natural resources, and increasing the resilience of farmers against climate change.

• It promotes scientific watershed management, improves institutional capacity, encourages technology-driven governance, and supports sustainable agricultural growth in vulnerable rainfed regions.

• The programme also contributes to achieving SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), SDG 13 (Climate Action), and SDG 15 (Life on Land).

   

   

Latest News

Recently, the World Gold Council (WGC) released its 2026 Central Bank Gold Reserves (CBGR) Survey, which revealed that central banks across the world are expected to continue increasing their gold reserves. The survey reflects growing confidence in gold as a strategic reserve asset amid global economic uncertainty and geopolitical risks.

About the World Gold Council (WGC)

• The World Gold Council (WGC) is a non-profit international association representing the world's leading gold mining companies.

• It was established in 1987 to promote the sustainable growth of the global gold market and enhance the role of gold in the international economy.

• The Council serves as the market development organisation for the gold industry and currently comprises 29 major gold mining companies from across the world.

Objectives of the World Gold Council

• The primary objective of the WGC is to maximize the long-term growth of the global gold industry by promoting the production, responsible use, and demand for gold.

• It works to strengthen confidence in gold by developing industry standards, supporting responsible mining practices, encouraging innovation, and promoting gold as an investment asset, a reserve asset, and a key industrial material.

• The Council also supports policies that ensure fairness, transparency, and sustainability in the gold mining sector.

Major Functions of the World Gold Council

Market Development

The WGC promotes the use of gold in investment, jewellery, technology, and central bank reserves. It undertakes initiatives to increase global demand for gold and expand its role in financial markets.

Research and Market Analysis

The Council is regarded as the global authority on gold because it provides detailed research, market intelligence, and economic analysis on the global gold industry.

It regularly publishes reports that help governments, investors, businesses, and financial institutions understand trends in gold demand, supply, prices, and investment patterns.

Policy Advocacy

The WGC works with governments, regulators, financial institutions, and international organisations to develop policies that strengthen the global gold market while ensuring responsible sourcing and sustainable mining practices.

Innovation and Product Development

The Council supports research into new technologies and industrial applications of gold. It also encourages the development of innovative financial products that improve access to gold investments.

Major Publications of the WGC

The World Gold Council publishes several internationally recognised reports that serve as important references for governments, investors, and policymakers.

Some of its major publications include:

• Gold Demand Trends (Quarterly Report)

• Central Bank Gold Reserves (CBGR) Survey

• Gold Market Commentary

• Gold Outlook Reports

• Gold ETF Reports

These reports analyse global gold demand, investment trends, central bank purchases, jewellery consumption, and regional market performance.

Central Bank Gold Reserves (CBGR) Survey

The Central Bank Gold Reserves (CBGR) Survey is one of the WGC's flagship publications.

It assesses the views of central banks regarding the role of gold in reserve management, future purchasing plans, reserve diversification strategies, and expectations about the global economy.

The 2026 survey indicates that many central banks intend to increase their gold holdings as gold continues to be viewed as a safe-haven asset, an inflation hedge, and a means of diversifying foreign exchange reserves.

Creation of the First Gold Exchange-Traded Fund (ETF)

The World Gold Council played a pioneering role in the financial markets by co-sponsoring the world's first Gold Exchange-Traded Fund (Gold ETF).

Gold ETFs allow investors to invest in gold without physically purchasing or storing the metal, making gold investment easier, more transparent, and highly liquid.

Global Coverage

The World Gold Council covers markets that account for approximately three-fourths of the world's annual gold consumption, making it one of the most influential organisations in the global precious metals sector.

Headquarters

The headquarters of the World Gold Council is located in London, United Kingdom.

Why Do Central Banks Hold Gold?

Central banks maintain gold reserves because gold serves as a safe-haven asset during periods of economic uncertainty and financial crises.

Gold helps diversify foreign exchange reserves, reduces dependence on any single currency, protects against inflation, and strengthens confidence in a country's financial stability. Unlike paper currencies, gold has intrinsic value and is not directly affected by the monetary policies of any individual country.

Significance of the World Gold Council

The World Gold Council plays a crucial role in promoting responsible gold mining, improving market transparency, supporting investment innovation, and providing reliable research on the global gold market.

Its reports are widely used by central banks, governments, investors, financial institutions, and international organisations for policy formulation and investment decisions.

Latest News

Recently, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research’s Indian Institute of Oilseeds Research (ICAR-IIOR), Hyderabad, developed an innovative Smart Seed Coating Technology to improve seed germination, crop establishment, and climate resilience, especially in rainfed agriculture.

About Smart Seed Coating Technology

Smart Seed Coating Technology is an innovative biopolymer-based seed treatment technology developed by the ICAR–Indian Institute of Oilseeds Research (ICAR-IIOR), Hyderabad.

The technology involves coating seeds with a biodegradable multifunctional layer that protects the seed and delivers essential nutrients and beneficial microbes directly to the seed during germination. It enhances seed performance, early crop growth, and resistance to environmental stresses while promoting sustainable agriculture.

Developed By

The technology has been developed by the Indian Institute of Oilseeds Research (ICAR-IIOR), Hyderabad, which functions under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).

Key Features of Smart Seed Coating Technology

Biopolymer-Based Protective Coating

The technology uses biodegradable biopolymers to create a multifunctional protective layer around the seed. This coating protects the seed during storage and after sowing while ensuring environmentally friendly degradation in the soil.

Efficient Delivery Platform

The coating acts as an intelligent delivery system, supplying essential inputs directly at the seed–soil interface. It delivers beneficial microorganisms, nutrients, micronutrients, biofertilisers, and crop protection agents, ensuring that the seed receives vital resources exactly where they are needed during germination.

This targeted delivery improves nutrient-use efficiency while reducing wastage of agricultural inputs.

Creation of a Favourable Microenvironment

The coating creates a protective microenvironment around the seed that supports rapid and healthy germination.

It promotes faster seed germination, vigorous seedling growth, stronger root development, and improves the plant's ability to withstand both biotic stresses (caused by pests and diseases) and abiotic stresses (such as drought, heat, and salinity) during the critical crop establishment stage.

Suitable for Multiple Crops

The technology can be customised for a wide variety of crops, including cereals, millets, pulses, vegetables, and horticultural crops.

Its flexibility allows the same technology platform to be adapted for different agricultural conditions and crop requirements.

Ideal for Rainfed Agriculture

The technology is particularly suitable for rainfed farming, where crop productivity largely depends on uncertain rainfall.

By improving early crop establishment and moisture utilisation, it helps farmers reduce production risks under changing climatic conditions.

How Does Smart Seed Coating Work?

After sowing, the biodegradable coating gradually dissolves in the soil and releases beneficial microbes, nutrients, micronutrients, and crop protection agents around the seed.

This ensures immediate availability of essential inputs during germination, enabling the young plant to establish a stronger root system and grow more vigorously while reducing dependence on excessive fertilisers and pesticides.

Significance of Smart Seed Coating Technology

Promotes Climate-Resilient Agriculture

The technology helps crops tolerate drought, heat, moisture stress, and diseases, making agriculture more resilient to climate change.

Supports Rainfed Farming

Since nearly half of India's cultivated land is rainfed, the technology can significantly improve productivity in areas facing irregular rainfall and water scarcity.

Improves Seed Germination and Crop Establishment

Better germination leads to uniform crop growth, improved plant population, and higher agricultural productivity.

Enhances Resource-Use Efficiency

The direct delivery of nutrients and crop protection agents reduces wastage and improves the efficient use of fertilisers, micronutrients, and pesticides, thereby lowering cultivation costs.

Promotes Sustainable Agriculture

The use of biodegradable materials reduces environmental pollution while decreasing excessive chemical input, supporting environmentally sustainable farming practices.

Strengthens Food Security

By improving crop establishment and increasing productivity under challenging conditions, the technology contributes to higher agricultural production and enhances national food security.

Importance for India

The technology is particularly important because a significant portion of India's agriculture depends on rainfall and remains vulnerable to climate variability.

It supports national priorities such as sustainable agriculture, climate-resilient farming, improved seed systems, higher farm productivity, and efficient utilisation of natural resources.

Related Institutions

Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is India's premier organisation for agricultural research, education, and extension. It functions under the Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE), Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare.

Indian Institute of Oilseeds Research (ICAR-IIOR)

The Indian Institute of Oilseeds Research (IIOR), located in Hyderabad, is an ICAR institute dedicated to research and development of oilseed crops, improved farming technologies, and sustainable production systems.

Latest News

Recently, the Prime Minister of India flagged off India's first hydrogen-powered passenger train from Jind Railway Station, Haryana. With this achievement, India became the third country in the world, after Germany and China, to introduce hydrogen trains in commercial passenger service.

About Hydrogen Train

• A hydrogen train is a clean-energy train that uses hydrogen fuel cells instead of diesel to generate electricity for propulsion.

• Inside the train, hydrogen combines with oxygen in a fuel cell, producing electricity, while the only direct emission is water vapour. The electricity powers electric traction motors, making the train an environmentally friendly alternative to diesel locomotives.

• Unlike diesel trains, hydrogen trains produce zero tailpipe carbon emissions, making them an important technology for reducing pollution and achieving low-carbon transport.

• Note: Hydrogen is not a primary source of energy. It is an energy carrier, meaning it must first be produced from other energy sources before it can be used.

How Does a Hydrogen Train Work?

• Hydrogen stored in onboard tanks enters a fuel-cell stack, where it reacts with oxygen from the atmosphere.

• This electrochemical reaction generates electricity, which powers the train's traction motors. During braking, the train recovers energy through regenerative braking, which is stored in onboard batteries. These batteries also provide additional power during acceleration and improve overall energy efficiency.

• The only by-product of this process is water vapour, making hydrogen trains much cleaner than diesel-powered trains.

India's First Hydrogen Train

• Indian Railways has launched its first hydrogen train as part of its broader strategy to decarbonise railway transportation and promote clean energy technologies.

• The prototype is currently being tested on the Jind–Sonipat section of the Northern Railway.

• The fuel-cell stack used in the prototype has been imported, while the propulsion system, control system, and overall train integration have been developed indigenously, demonstrating India's growing engineering capabilities under the Atmanirbhar Bharat initiative.

• The project is also aligned with the objectives of the National Green Hydrogen Mission, which seeks to develop India as a global hub for green hydrogen production and utilisation.

Hydrogen for Heritage Initiative

• Indian Railways has announced plans to introduce 35 "Hydrogen for Heritage" trains on eight heritage narrow-gauge and metre-gauge railway routes.

• These routes have been selected because conventional railway electrification may be economically expensive or environmentally unsuitable in ecologically sensitive and heritage areas.

• The initiative aims to develop expertise in hydrogen propulsion, fuel-cell technology, hydrogen storage, refuelling infrastructure, and safety standards.

Global Experience with Hydrogen Trains

Germany

Germany became the first country to introduce commercial hydrogen-powered passenger trains through the Alstom Coradia iLint in 2022.

However, several railway operators have gradually shifted towards battery-electric trains because hydrogen trains faced issues such as fuel-cell degradation, high maintenance costs, hydrogen supply constraints, and higher operating expenses.

China

China has introduced hydrogen-powered trains on selected routes as part of its clean transportation initiatives.

Other Countries

Countries including Japan, South Korea, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States are currently operating pilot projects or demonstration services to evaluate the long-term commercial viability of hydrogen rail technology.

Globally, hydrogen trains are mainly used on non-electrified regional railway lines, where installing overhead electric infrastructure is not economically feasible.

Significance of Hydrogen Trains

Environmental Benefits

Hydrogen trains emit only water vapour during operation, significantly reducing air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and dependence on diesel fuel.

Supports India's Green Hydrogen Mission

The project complements the National Green Hydrogen Mission by promoting the adoption of clean hydrogen technologies in the transport sector and encouraging domestic innovation.

Strengthens Indigenous Manufacturing

Although the fuel-cell stack is imported, the propulsion system, train integration, and control systems have been developed in India. This strengthens the country's railway manufacturing ecosystem and supports the Atmanirbhar Bharat initiative.

Diversifies India's Energy Mix

Hydrogen provides an additional clean-energy pathway, reducing long-term dependence on fossil fuels and improving national energy security.

Builds Technological Expertise

The pilot project provides valuable experience in hydrogen production, storage, refuelling, fuel-cell operation, maintenance, and railway safety standards, laying the foundation for future hydrogen-based transportation systems.

Issues and Challenges

Questionable Route Selection

Globally, hydrogen trains are mainly deployed on non-electrified railway lines.

However, India's first hydrogen train is being tested on the fully electrified Jind–Sonipat railway corridor, raising questions about whether this is the most suitable use of hydrogen technology.

High Infrastructure Requirements

Hydrogen trains require dedicated infrastructure for hydrogen production, compression, storage, transportation, and refuelling.

Developing such infrastructure across multiple heritage routes will require substantial investment.

Low Energy Efficiency

Hydrogen undergoes multiple energy-intensive stages, including production, compression, transport, storage, and conversion back into electricity.

As a result, hydrogen-powered trains are generally less energy efficient than battery-electric trains.

Limited Availability of Green Hydrogen

Currently, over 95% of global hydrogen production comes from natural gas, producing significant carbon emissions.

The production of green hydrogen using renewable electricity through electrolysis remains expensive and is still at an early stage of large-scale commercial deployment.

Slow Project Progress

Although nearly ₹2,800 crore has been allocated for hydrogen train development, the deployment of hydrogen trains on heritage routes has progressed relatively slowly.

Is Hydrogen the Best Green Fuel for Railways?

• Hydrogen is not always the most suitable solution for railway transport, particularly where railway electrification already exists.

• Indian Railways has already electrified more than 99% of its broad-gauge network, significantly reducing the need for hydrogen-powered trains on major railway corridors.

• For short and medium-distance regional services, battery-electric trains are generally considered more efficient because they consume less energy, have lower operating costs, and require simpler infrastructure.

• However, hydrogen remains an important clean-energy option for sectors where direct electrification is difficult, such as steel manufacturing, fertiliser production, long-distance shipping, and potentially aviation.

• Therefore, hydrogen should be viewed as a complementary technology rather than a complete replacement for railway electrification.

Way Forward

• India should prioritise hydrogen trains on non-electrified, remote, and heritage railway routes, where electrification is either technically difficult or economically unviable.

• Greater investment is needed in the production of green hydrogen using renewable energy to improve the environmental benefits of hydrogen transportation.

• Before expanding hydrogen rail services, detailed cost-benefit analyses, life-cycle assessments, and operational studies should be conducted to ensure long-term economic viability.

• India should also continue strengthening indigenous capabilities in fuel-cell manufacturing, hydrogen storage technologies, and railway safety standards, while learning from global experiences.

• The Jind–Sonipat hydrogen train should serve as a technology demonstrator, providing practical operational experience before any large-scale deployment.

   

Latest News

Recent discussions on India's Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) and evolving global trade negotiations have highlighted that Non-Tariff Barriers (NTBs), rather than tariffs, have become the biggest challenge to international trade. Modern trade agreements now focus increasingly on regulatory cooperation, standards, and mutual recognition instead of merely reducing customs duties.

Introduction

• International trade negotiations were traditionally centred on reducing tariffs and customs duties to improve market access. However, with globalization and the expansion of international supply chains, the nature of trade barriers has changed significantly.

• Today, Non-Tariff Barriers (NTBs) such as technical regulations, quality standards, licensing requirements, product certification, and environmental norms have become the most important determinants of market access. Although these measures are often introduced for legitimate reasons like consumer safety, public health, and environmental protection, they also increase compliance costs and can restrict imports.

• As a result, overcoming NTBs has become more important than simply lowering tariffs in achieving successful international trade.

What are Non-Tariff Barriers (NTBs)?

• Non-Tariff Barriers (NTBs) are government-imposed regulations, standards, procedures, or administrative measures that goods and services must comply with before entering a foreign market.

• Unlike tariffs, which impose a direct tax on imports, NTBs regulate the conditions under which products can be imported, thereby increasing compliance requirements rather than import costs directly.

• These measures often affect trade by increasing the time, cost, and complexity of exporting goods.

Major Types of Non-Tariff Barriers

Technical Standards

Countries prescribe technical specifications regarding product quality, safety, composition, or manufacturing processes. Products that fail to meet these standards cannot enter the market.

Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Measures

These measures aim to protect human, animal, and plant health by regulating food safety, pesticides, veterinary standards, and disease control.

For example, imported agricultural products may require certification proving they are free from harmful pests or diseases.

Product Certification

Many countries require products to obtain official certification before they can be sold. Exporters must undergo testing and verification to demonstrate compliance with national regulations.

Packaging and Labelling Requirements

Imported goods must often comply with detailed rules relating to packaging materials, nutritional information, language requirements, warning labels, and recycling standards.

Licensing and Import Approval

Certain products require import licences or prior government approval before entering a country.

Lengthy approval procedures often delay market entry and increase business costs.

Environmental Regulations

Governments increasingly require imported products to meet environmental standards related to carbon emissions, sustainability, recycling, or deforestation-free supply chains.

Difference Between Tariff and Non-Tariff Barriers

Growing Importance of NTBs

• Since the establishment of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995, average global tariff rates have fallen significantly due to successive trade liberalisation agreements.

• However, governments have increasingly relied on regulatory measures instead of tariffs to protect domestic markets.

• Today, nearly 90% of global trade is affected by some form of Non-Tariff Barrier, and thousands of new regulatory measures are introduced every year.

• Consequently, exporters now spend far more resources meeting regulatory requirements than paying customs duties.

NTBs as Instruments of Economic Power

European Union's Regulatory Framework

The European Union (EU) has developed one of the world's most comprehensive regulatory systems, making regulations a key instrument of trade policy.

Important examples include:

• Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)

• EU Deforestation Regulation (EUDR)

• Chemical safety standards (REACH)

• Product conformity assessments

• Strict environmental regulations

Although these regulations promote sustainability and consumer protection, they also serve as effective filters for imported goods.

United States' Strategic Trade Policy

The United States increasingly uses NTBs to pursue economic security and strategic interests.

Major examples include:

• Export controls

• Technology restrictions

• Semiconductor export regulations

• Artificial Intelligence (AI) controls

• Restrictions on advanced computing technologies

These measures shape global supply chains and restrict access to critical technologies.

India's Emerging Regulatory Strategy

India has traditionally relied on high import tariffs to protect domestic industries.

However, recent industrial policy reflects a gradual shift towards regulatory measures such as:

• Quality Control Orders (QCOs)

• Mandatory product standards

• Import quality regulations

• Domestic manufacturing requirements

This shift indicates India's growing recognition that regulatory standards have become central to global trade competitiveness.

India's Experience with Free Trade Agreements (FTAs)

India's experience shows that tariff reductions alone do not guarantee increased exports.

Despite signing Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) with ASEAN, Japan, and South Korea, Indian exporters continue to encounter significant regulatory barriers.

For instance, exporters face:

• Lengthy pharmaceutical approval procedures in Japan.

• Complex product registration requirements in ASEAN countries.

• Restrictive customs and inspection procedures affecting exports.

As a result, India's FTA utilisation rate remains relatively low compared to many developed economies.

Impact of Non-Tariff Barriers on Trade

Non-Tariff Barriers significantly affect international trade by increasing:

• Compliance costs

• Transaction costs

• Testing and certification expenses

• Time required for market entry

• Administrative burdens

Consequently, many exporters are unable to fully benefit from tariff concessions available under Free Trade Agreements.

New Generation Trade Agreements

Modern trade agreements increasingly focus on reducing regulatory barriers rather than only lowering tariffs.

India–UAE Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA)

The India–UAE CEPA includes several provisions aimed at reducing Non-Tariff Barriers.

It provides for:

• Mutual recognition of standards

• Acceptance of international testing and certification

• Reduction in duplicate compliance procedures

These measures reduce business costs and improve market access.

India–EFTA Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA)

The Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA) between India and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) goes further by introducing:

• Mutual Recognition Agreements (MRAs)

• Simplified conformity assessment procedures

• Institutional mechanisms to resolve NTBs

• Legally binding commitments on regulatory cooperation

These provisions represent the future direction of global trade agreements.

Significance of NTBs in Modern Trade

Shift from Tariffs to Regulations

International trade is increasingly governed by technical standards, quality regulations, and regulatory compliance rather than import duties.

Competitiveness now depends as much on meeting standards as on production costs.

Hidden Protectionism

Although many NTBs genuinely protect public health, consumers, and the environment, they may also function as hidden protectionist measures by making imports more expensive or difficult.

Regulatory Power

Countries that establish internationally accepted standards gain significant influence over global trade.

Modern economic power increasingly comes from the ability to shape global regulations, not merely from imposing tariffs.

Challenges for India

• India faces several challenges in dealing with NTBs.

• Many Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) struggle to meet international quality standards because of limited technical capacity and financial resources.

• Certification procedures remain expensive, while regulatory compliance often requires advanced testing facilities and specialised expertise.

• Differences between India's domestic standards and international standards also reduce export competitiveness.

Way Forward

• India should strengthen its domestic quality infrastructure by improving laboratories, testing facilities, certification agencies, and accreditation systems.

• Greater emphasis should be placed on Mutual Recognition Agreements (MRAs) with major trading partners so that products tested in India are accepted abroad without repeated certification.

• Indian industries, particularly MSMEs, require financial and technical support to comply with international standards.

• Future Free Trade Agreements should focus more on regulatory cooperation, transparency, digital customs procedures, and reducing unnecessary compliance burdens, rather than only negotiating tariff reductions.

• India should also actively participate in international standard-setting organisations to influence the development of future global regulations.

Conclusion

• The structure of international trade has fundamentally changed. While tariffs continue to attract political attention, Non-Tariff Barriers (NTBs) have become the principal determinants of market access and global competitiveness.

• For India, future trade success will depend not only on securing lower tariffs but also on strengthening domestic quality standards, enhancing regulatory cooperation, promoting mutual recognition of standards, and reducing unnecessary compliance costs.

• In the twenty-first century, regulatory competitiveness has become just as important as price competitiveness in determining success in global trade.