Why in News?

The Supreme Court recently orally clarified that its earlier directions restricting mining around the Asan Wetland Conservation Reserve could, for the sake of parity, potentially apply to other wetlands and community conservation reserves across India.

SC’s 10-km Mining Restriction

In its February 2024 interim order, the Supreme Court directed that mining within a 10-km radius of the Asan reserve should not take place without prior permission from the Standing Committee of the National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) and/or the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).

Himachal Pradesh’s Plea

Himachal Pradesh argued that the restriction should not automatically apply because the Asan Wetland lies in Uttarakhand and wetland conservation reserves do not necessarily require an external buffer zone.

The State also raised questions regarding the geographical extent of the wetland and the applicability of the Supreme Court's earlier directions beyond the reserve's actual boundaries.

Supreme Court’s Direction

The Court directed the Standing Committee of the NBWL or the Environment Ministry to determine whether the Asan wetland extends into Himachal Pradesh.

If the wetland is found to extend into Himachal Pradesh, the 2024 mining restrictions would apply to the relevant area. If it does not, mining proposals would be examined under the applicable legal and environmental framework.

About Asan Wetland

The Asan Wetland Conservation Reserve is located at the confluence of the Asan and Yamuna rivers in Uttarakhand. It is an important habitat for migratory waterbirds and aquatic biodiversity.

The wetland was designated as a Ramsar Site in 2020, recognising its importance as a wetland of international significance.

Is There a Statutory 10-km Ramsar Buffer?

There is no fixed statutory 10-km buffer zone around Ramsar Sites under either the Ramsar Convention or the Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017.

Therefore, the 10-km restriction around Asan Wetland arises from the Supreme Court’s specific directions, rather than from a general Ramsar Convention requirement.

Wetlands Rules, 2017

The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017 introduced a more decentralised framework in which State Wetland Authorities play a central role in wetland conservation and management.

Unlike the 2010 Rules, the 2017 framework removed the earlier detailed list of prohibited activities and gave greater responsibility to States for regulating wetlands.

The constitutional validity of the 2017 Rules is currently under challenge before the Supreme Court, according to the provided material.

Comparison with Other Protected Areas

The legal position regarding mining around wetlands differs from that applicable to National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.

Mining is prohibited within National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries and, pursuant to Supreme Court directions, within 1 km of their boundaries, unless a larger Eco-Sensitive Zone (ESZ) has been notified.

Mining on forest land additionally requires prior Central approval under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, while projects involving mining may also require Environmental Clearance under the EIA Notification, 2006.

Why in News?

Glaw Lake in Arunachal Pradesh has been designated as India’s 101st Ramsar Site and the first wetland of international importance in Arunachal Pradesh. With this designation, India’s Ramsar network has increased from 26 sites in 2014 to 101 sites in 2026.

Location and Physical Features

Glaw Lake is a pristine freshwater lake located within the Kamlang Tiger Reserve and Wildlife Sanctuary in the Eastern Himalayas. The lake is fed by perennial mountain streams and is surrounded by dense natural vegetation.

Biodiversity Significance

The wetland and its catchment support exceptional plant diversity, with more than 150 tree species and 49 orchid species recorded in the area. This makes Glaw Lake an important biodiversity-rich ecosystem within the Eastern Himalayan landscape.

Ecological Significance

The Ramsar designation is expected to strengthen biodiversity conservation, water conservation and climate resilience. It can also support sustainable livelihoods of local communities dependent on the wetland ecosystem.

Ramsar Convention

About the Convention

The Ramsar Convention, officially known as the Convention on Wetlands, is an intergovernmental treaty adopted in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971. It provides an international framework for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.

UNESCO serves as the depositary of the Convention.

India and Ramsar Convention

The Ramsar Convention entered into force for India on 1 February 1982. Under the Convention, countries can designate eligible wetlands for inclusion in the List of Wetlands of International Importance, commonly known as the Ramsar List.

Ramsar Site Designation

A wetland can qualify as a Ramsar Site if it fulfils at least one of the nine Ramsar criteria related to ecology, botany, zoology, limnology, hydrology, threatened species or biodiversity conservation.

Montreux Record

The Montreux Record is a register of Ramsar Sites where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur due to factors such as technological development, pollution or other human interference.

Why in News?

The Karnataka Government has banned the sale, free distribution, advertisement and promotion of High Fat, Sugar and Salt (HFSS) food products in schools, colleges and within a 50-metre radius of educational institutions. The measure aims to promote healthy eating habits among children and adolescents.

Regulatory Framework

The Karnataka Food Safety and Drug Administration (FDA) will enforce the restrictions under the Food Safety and Standards (Safe Food and Balanced Diets for Children in School) Regulations, 2020.

The move follows departmental inspections that found meals in several educational institutions containing high levels of refined carbohydrates, including white bread, pasta and processed snack foods, which can rapidly increase blood sugar levels.

Who Must Comply?

Food Business Operators (FBOs) such as canteens, bakeries, restaurants and food stalls operating within educational institutions or within the 50-metre radius must comply with the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 and obtain the required licences.

Monitoring and Enforcement

Food Safety Officers will conduct regular inspections to monitor compliance. Educational institutions will also be required to display signboards prohibiting the sale of HFSS foods.

Violations can attract action under the Food Safety and Standards Act and Rules.

Objective

The initiative seeks to reduce children's exposure to and consumption of junk food and HFSS products and encourage healthier dietary habits from an early age.

Why in News?

A rare Caspian Cobra was recently spotted in the Upper Forest Range of Chamba district, Himachal Pradesh, highlighting the presence of this uncommon venomous snake in the region.

About Caspian Cobra

The Caspian Cobra, also known as the Central Asian Cobra, Ladle Snake, Oxus Cobra or Russian Cobra, is a venomous snake belonging to the family Elapidae. Its scientific name is Naja oxiana.

It is considered the most venomous cobra species in the world.

Habitat and Distribution

The Caspian Cobra is primarily native to Central Asia. Its distribution includes Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, the Fergana Valley, northern and eastern Afghanistan, northeastern Iran and northern Pakistan.

In India, it occurs in the Kashmir region and Himachal Pradesh, representing the eastern extent of its known distribution.

The species generally inhabits arid and semi-arid environments, particularly rocky hillsides and scrublands.

Physical Features

The Caspian Cobra is generally around 1–1.2 metres long, with a maximum recorded length of approximately 175 cm. It is therefore somewhat smaller than the Indian Cobra, which can reach around 2.2 metres.

Its body is slender and relatively uniform in thickness, with a medium-length tail. The snake has long cervical ribs that allow it to expand its neck into the characteristic cobra hood.

Unlike some other cobra species, it generally lacks a prominent hood marking and may appear relatively plain in colour.

Its colour varies from light brown to dark brown or black, sometimes with faint banding, while the underside is generally lighter, ranging from cream to light yellow.

The head is large and broad, with a rounded snout. When threatened, the snake spreads its hood to make itself appear larger and more intimidating.

Conservation Status

The Caspian Cobra is classified as Near Threatened (NT) on the IUCN Red List.

What is a Joint Parliamentary Committee?

A Joint Parliamentary Committee (JPC) is a temporary ad hoc committee of Parliament constituted to conduct a detailed examination of a specific Bill, policy issue, financial irregularity, scam or matter of national importance. It brings together members of both the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha to undertake detailed scrutiny, consultations and fact-finding before submitting its report to Parliament.

A JPC automatically ceases to exist after completing the task assigned to it and submitting its report.

Constitution and Legal Basis

The Constitution of India does not specifically provide for a JPC. It is constituted through a motion adopted by one House of Parliament and agreed to by the other House, in accordance with parliamentary rules and procedures.

The committee functions with secretarial and administrative assistance from the Lok Sabha Secretariat and operates from the Parliament House Complex, New Delhi.

Composition

A JPC consists of members from both Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. Its strength is decided separately for each committee, and there is no permanently fixed number of members.

Members are drawn from different political parties, including the ruling alliance and opposition, thereby providing broader parliamentary representation.

Chairperson

The JPC is generally chaired by a Lok Sabha Member of Parliament appointed by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha. The Chairperson presides over meetings, coordinates deliberations and guides the committee towards preparation of its final report.

Functions and Powers of JPC

Detailed Examination

A JPC is constituted when an issue requires deeper scrutiny than is possible through ordinary parliamentary debate. It examines documents, evidence, government actions, stakeholder views and other relevant material before arriving at its conclusions.

Evidence Collection

The committee can summon experts, government officials, public authorities, organisations, associations and other stakeholders to provide evidence, opinions and relevant documents.

Public Consultation

Where considered necessary, a JPC can invite written suggestions and oral submissions from interested individuals and institutions. This allows wider consultation on matters under examination.

Report and Recommendations

After completing its examination, the committee prepares a detailed report containing findings, observations and recommendations and submits it to Parliament.

Members who disagree with the majority view may submit a dissent note, which can be included along with the committee's report.

Advisory Nature

The recommendations of a JPC are not legally binding on the Government. However, they carry considerable parliamentary and political significance because they emerge from detailed examination involving members from different political parties.

Why is a JPC Important?

A JPC strengthens parliamentary scrutiny and accountability by allowing complex issues to be examined in greater depth than is normally possible during regular legislative proceedings.

It provides a platform for cross-party deliberation, expert consultation and evidence-based examination. Its findings can influence subsequent legislation, government policy and institutional reforms.

Historical Examples

JPCs have been constituted to examine several major issues, including the Bofors scandal (1987), Harshad Mehta securities scam (1992), Ketan Parekh share market scam (2001), the National Register of Citizens-related issue (2016) and the Personal Data Protection Bill (2019).

JPCs in Focus in 2026

130th Constitution Amendment Bill

A 31-member JPC chaired by BJP MP Aparajita Sarangi is examining the proposed 130th Constitution Amendment Bill. The proposal concerns the removal of the Prime Minister, Chief Ministers and Union or State Ministers from office if they remain in custody for 30 consecutive days in specified serious criminal cases.

The committee has been examining the proposal through multiple meetings and is considering the need for appropriate safeguards to ensure fair implementation and prevent potential misuse.

One Nation, One Election

A separate 39-member JPC chaired by BJP MP P. P. Chaudhary is examining the Constitution (129th Amendment) Bill, 2024 and the Union Territories Laws (Amendment) Bill, 2024.

These proposals seek to facilitate simultaneous elections to the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies, popularly referred to as “One Nation, One Election.”

The committee has undertaken wider consultations with States and stakeholders and has visited several States to gather views before finalising its recommendations.

Significance of the Review

The JPC's examination focuses on the constitutional, legal and administrative implications of the proposed reforms. It considers issues related to governance, electoral management, constitutional provisions and practical implementation before placing its recommendations before Parliament.

About Public Sector Banks

Public Sector Banks (PSBs) are government-owned commercial banks in which the Government of India holds more than 51% ownership. They operate under the regulatory supervision of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and play a crucial role in financial inclusion, credit delivery, savings mobilisation and implementation of government welfare schemes.

Major Functions of PSBs

PSBs perform development-oriented banking by supporting priority sector lending, agriculture, MSMEs, education, housing and social welfare programmes in addition to their commercial objectives.

They are also important channels for implementing government programmes such as PM Jan Dhan Yojana, PM Mudra Yojana, PM Vishwakarma and Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT), thereby strengthening financial inclusion.

During periods of economic slowdown or financial stress, PSBs act as economic stabilisers by maintaining credit flow to productive sectors and supporting economic activity and employment generation.

Historical Evolution of PSBs

Early Development

Several institutions that later became major PSBs were established during the late 19th and early 20th centuries to meet the banking requirements of trade, agriculture and domestic economic activity.

State Bank of India

The Imperial Bank of India, established in 1921, was transformed into the State Bank of India (SBI) in 1955, creating the country's largest government-owned commercial bank.

Bank Nationalisation, 1969

In 1969, the government nationalised 14 major commercial banks to expand banking services, improve rural credit availability and strengthen financial inclusion.

Second Phase of Nationalisation, 1980

In 1980, another six commercial banks were nationalised, further increasing government participation and expanding institutional banking in underserved areas.

Post-1991 Banking Reforms

After the 1991 economic reforms, PSBs faced greater competition from private sector banks. This encouraged them to modernise their technology, governance, operational efficiency and customer services.

12 Public Sector Banks in India

India currently has 12 Public Sector Banks.

State Bank of India (SBI) is headquartered in Mumbai, Maharashtra and is India's largest commercial bank. It originated from the Imperial Bank of India and became SBI in 1955.

Punjab National Bank (PNB) is headquartered in New Delhi and was founded in 1894. Its position was strengthened through the 2020 banking consolidation.

Bank of Baroda (BoB) is headquartered in Vadodara, Gujarat and was established in 1908. It has a significant domestic and international presence.

Canara Bank is headquartered in Bengaluru, Karnataka and was founded in 1906. Its position was strengthened following the merger of Syndicate Bank in 2020.

Union Bank of India is headquartered in Mumbai, Maharashtra and was established in 1919. Its scale increased following the merger of Andhra Bank and Corporation Bank.

Indian Bank is headquartered in Chennai, Tamil Nadu and was founded in 1907. It expanded significantly after the merger with Allahabad Bank in 2020.

Bank of India is headquartered in Mumbai, Maharashtra and was established in 1906. It has a substantial domestic network along with an international presence.

Central Bank of India is headquartered in Mumbai, Maharashtra and was founded in 1911. It is among India's oldest public sector commercial banks.

Indian Overseas Bank is headquartered in Chennai, Tamil Nadu and was established in 1937, with particular expertise in international banking.

UCO Bank is headquartered in Kolkata, West Bengal and was established in 1943, with a strong presence in eastern India.

Bank of Maharashtra is headquartered in Pune, Maharashtra and was founded in 1935, serving the retail, agriculture and industrial sectors.

Punjab & Sind Bank is headquartered in New Delhi and was established in 1908, with emphasis on financial inclusion and priority sector lending.

PSB Consolidation and Mergers

Mega Bank Consolidation, 2020

The 2020 bank consolidation was one of the most significant reforms aimed at creating larger, stronger and more competitive PSBs. The Union Cabinet approved the merger of 10 PSBs into four larger entities, effective from 1 April 2020.

Oriental Bank of Commerce and United Bank of India were merged with Punjab National Bank, while Syndicate Bank was merged with Canara Bank.

Andhra Bank and Corporation Bank were merged with Union Bank of India, while Allahabad Bank was merged with Indian Bank.

The consolidation created larger banking entities, generating economies of scale, greater lending capacity, improved technology adoption and stronger risk-management capabilities. It also strengthened PSBs' ability to finance large infrastructure and industrial projects.

Recent Performance: FY 2025–26

PSBs recorded a strong financial performance during FY 2025–26, supported by robust credit growth, improved profitability and better asset quality. Their aggregate business reached ₹283.3 lakh crore as of 31 March 2026, representing 12.8% annual growth. Deposits grew by 10.6%, while gross advances increased by 15.7%.

Credit growth remained strong across key sectors, with retail advances growing 18.1%, agriculture advances 15.5% and MSME advances 18.2%. This highlights the continuing role of PSBs in productive credit delivery and financial inclusion.

Improvement in Asset Quality

PSBs recorded a major improvement in asset quality, with Gross NPA falling to 1.93% and Net NPA declining to 0.39% by 31 March 2026. The provisioning coverage ratio remained above 90% across every PSB, while the slippage ratio declined to 0.7%. Recoveries, including written-off accounts, reached ₹86,971 crore.

Profitability and Capital Adequacy

Aggregate operating profit reached ₹3.21 lakh crore, while net profit increased by 11.1% to ₹1.98 lakh crore, marking the fourth consecutive year of overall profitability.

The aggregate Capital to Risk-Weighted Assets Ratio (CRAR) improved to 16.6%, supported by ₹50,551 crore in capital raising, remaining well above the regulatory requirement of 11.5%.

Digital Transformation

PSBs are increasingly adopting paperless lending, e-KYC, digital documentation and Straight Through Processing (STP). Integration with government digital platforms and improvements in cybersecurity and operational efficiency are helping transform PSBs into more citizen-centric institutions.

The “आपकी पूँजी, आपका अधिकार (Your Money, Your Right)” campaign helped return more than ₹6,800 crore of unclaimed financial assets to nearly 29 lakh rightful claimants, highlighting the role of PSBs in improving financial asset recovery and citizen-centric banking.

Major Challenges

Stressed Assets

Although asset quality has improved substantially, PSBs need continuous monitoring and prudent lending practices to prevent the re-emergence of stressed assets.

Competition from Private Banks

Private sector banks continue to have advantages in innovation, customer experience and digital services, requiring PSBs to accelerate technological modernisation.

Cybersecurity

Rapid growth in digital banking has increased exposure to cyber threats, making cyber resilience and operational risk management increasingly important.

Operational Efficiency

PSBs need continuous improvements in cost management, productivity and governance. The cost-to-income ratio improved to 49.67% in FY 2025–26, but further efficiency gains remain important.

Global Economic Uncertainties

Geopolitical developments and disruptions in regions such as the Middle East can affect financial stability and require PSBs to maintain adequate risk preparedness.

Customer Service

Improving grievance redressal, responsible digital lending, transparency and financial literacy remains essential for maintaining public confidence in PSBs.

Way Forward

The future of PSBs should focus on strengthening governance, digital capabilities, cybersecurity and customer-centric banking while preserving their developmental role.

Improved risk management and prudent lending are necessary to sustain the gains in asset quality. At the same time, PSBs need to leverage technology and data-driven banking to compete effectively with private sector banks.

The continued strengthening of financial inclusion, MSME and agricultural credit, digital banking and welfare-linked financial services will allow PSBs to remain important instruments of inclusive economic growth.