Why in News?

The Prime Minister paid tribute to Pingali Venkayya on his 150th birth anniversary on 2 August, recognising his contribution as the designer of India’s National Flag (Tiranga) and his role in inspiring patriotism and nation-building.

Early Life

Pingali Venkayya was born on 2 August 1876 in Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh. At the age of 19, he joined the British Army and participated in the Second Boer War (1899–1902) in South Africa, where he first met Mahatma Gandhi and developed a lasting association with him.

Design of the National Flag

At the 1921 Indian National Congress session in Vijayawada, Pingali Venkayya designed and presented the Swaraj Flag, made from Khadi, to Mahatma Gandhi.

His original design contained two horizontal bands of red and green, representing the Hindu and Muslim communities, with the Charkha (spinning wheel) at the centre. Following Gandhi’s suggestion, a white band was incorporated to represent peace, while the Charkha symbolised Swaraj and self-reliance.

The design was subsequently adopted by the Indian National Congress in 1931 and became the foundation of the modern Indian Tricolour.

Evolution into the Present National Flag

In 1947, an Ad Hoc Committee of the Constituent Assembly recommended retaining the 1931 Tricolour while replacing the Charkha with the Ashoka Chakra.

The Constituent Assembly adopted the present National Flag on 22 July 1947. It subsequently became the National Flag of independent India on 15 August 1947.

The Ashoka Chakra represents the Dharma Chakra and conveys the ideals of righteousness, movement and progress.

Role in the National Movement

Pingali Venkayya actively participated in the Indian freedom struggle from 1906 to 1922. He was associated with important nationalist movements, including the Vande Mataram movement and the Home Rule movement.

His work on the national flag contributed to the creation of a common symbol of national identity, which became an important element of the freedom movement.

A Renowned Polymath

Pingali Venkayya was a person of diverse interests and expertise and was associated with several fields, earning him distinctive historical titles.

“Japan Venkayya”

He was known as “Japan Venkayya” because of his interest in languages. In 1913, he delivered a full-length speech in Japanese at Bapatla in Andhra Pradesh.

“Patti Venkayya”

He was called “Patti (Cotton) Venkayya” because of his extensive work and research in agriculture and cotton, particularly Cambodia Cotton.

“Diamond Venkayya”

He was also known as “Diamond Venkayya” because of his expertise in geology and diamond mining. He authored the 1955 book The Mother of Diamonds and later served as an adviser to the Government of India’s Mineral Research Department.

Other Contributions and Legacy

Venkayya worked for a period as a plague inspector in Madras and Bellary and also established an educational institution in Machilipatnam.

His contribution was formally commemorated through a postage stamp issued in 2009. In 2015, All India Radio (AIR) Vijayawada was renamed in his honour.

Significance

Pingali Venkayya’s most enduring contribution was the development of a national symbol that represented the aspirations of the Indian freedom movement. The evolution of his Swaraj Flag into the present Tiranga reflects the transition from the nationalist struggle to the establishment of the sovereign Indian Republic.

Shipki La Pass is a high-altitude mountain pass located at over 4,000 metres in Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh, along the India–China border adjoining the Tibet Autonomous Region. Cross-border trade through the pass resumed on 1 August 2026 after a six-year suspension due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Historical Background

Shipki La was historically known as Pema La or “Shared Gate.” After the 1962 India–China War, the pass was renamed Shipki La by the Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP).

The pass has been part of an ancient Silk Route, facilitating trade between Tibet and present-day Himachal Pradesh for centuries. Before Independence, Tibetan traders used Shipki La and the old Hindustan-Tibet Road to reach Rampur Bushahr, particularly during the famous Lavi Fair.

Geographical Features

The Sutlej River, known as Langqen Zangbo in Tibet, enters India through the Shipki La region. The approximately 28-km stretch between Namgia, the last Indian village, and Shipki La is largely barren and rugged.

The pass experiences heavy snowfall during winter, which can cut off the route for several months. Consequently, cross-border trade generally operates only for a limited period after the snow recedes.

Strategic Importance

Shipki La has considerable strategic and security significance because Indian positions in the region are situated at a higher elevation than those on the Chinese side. The area also contains several buildings and installations used by Indian security agencies.

Its location along the India–China border makes the pass important not only for traditional trade but also for border management, surveillance and strategic connectivity.

India–China Border Trade

Shipki La was closed following the 1962 India–China War and was subsequently reopened in the early 1990s following a bilateral agreement. Trade traditionally takes place for only a few months from around June, after the winter snow has receded.

The trade involves commodities exchanged between the two sides. Imports traditionally include wool, livestock, yak products, religious items and minerals, while exports include grains, spices, tobacco, timber and metal tools.

The resumption of trade in August 2026 is significant because it restores an important channel of traditional border commerce and people-to-people economic interaction between India and Tibet after a prolonged pandemic-related suspension.

Unique Barter System

Shipki La is distinctive among India’s major border trade routes with China because trade has traditionally been conducted through a barter system rather than monetary transactions.

This distinguishes Shipki La from Lipulekh Pass in Uttarakhand and Nathu La Pass in Sikkim, where cross-border trade is conducted using currency-based transactions.

Significance for India

The reopening of Shipki La trade strengthens traditional border commerce, provides economic opportunities for communities in the Kinnaur region, and revives a historic India–Tibet trade route.

Strategically, the pass is important because it combines border trade, historical connectivity and national security significance in one of the most sensitive sectors of the India–China boundary.

Leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease caused by pathogenic, spiral-shaped bacteria called spirochaetes, belonging to the genus Leptospira. Kerala experiences a particularly high disease and mortality burden, especially during the monsoon and post-monsoon periods.

Reservoirs

Several wild and domesticated mammals can act as reservoirs of Leptospira. Important reservoirs include rodents, cattle, buffaloes, pigs, dogs, horses, sheep and goats.

Pathogenic leptospires can persist in the renal tubules and, in some animals, in the reproductive tract. Many carrier animals remain asymptomatic or develop only mild illness, while continuing to shed the bacteria through their urine for prolonged periods. Rodents are particularly important reservoirs because their urine can contaminate soil and water.

Transmission

Humans generally acquire leptospirosis through direct contact with infected animal urine or indirectly through water, soil or food contaminated with the bacteria. The organism can enter the human body through cuts, abrasions, mucous membranes or macerated skin.

Human-to-human transmission is rare, making exposure to infected animals and contaminated environments the principal routes of infection.

Symptoms and Severity

Leptospirosis can range from a mild flu-like illness to severe and potentially fatal disease. Common symptoms include fever, headache and muscle pain, generally developing around 5–14 days after exposure.

Severe infection can cause Weil’s syndrome, meningitis and pulmonary haemorrhage. Jaundice is generally associated with more severe disease.

Diagnosis

Leptospirosis is often underdiagnosed because its early symptoms can resemble several other febrile illnesses. Limited access to appropriate diagnostic tests can further contribute to missed or delayed diagnosis.

Treatment

Leptospirosis is treated with antibiotics, with the choice depending on the severity of the infection. Commonly used antibiotics include doxycycline, penicillin G and ceftriaxone.

Prevention and Control

Prevention primarily involves reducing exposure to contaminated environments and controlling animal reservoirs. Important measures include maintaining proper sanitation, avoiding contact with potentially contaminated water and soil, controlling rodents and using protective clothing during high-risk occupational or environmental exposure.

Serovar-specific vaccines are available for animals such as dogs, pigs and cattle. However, vaccination may not completely prevent renal carriage, meaning vaccinated animals may still potentially harbour the organism in their kidneys.

Geographical Distribution

Leptospirosis occurs worldwide but has a particularly high prevalence in South-East Asia. Countries such as India, Indonesia, Thailand and Sri Lanka report significant numbers of cases, with transmission generally increasing during the rainy season.

Why Kerala is Vulnerable

Kerala faces a significant leptospirosis burden because the disease is strongly associated with rainfall, flooding, contaminated water and soil, and exposure to animal urine. The risk becomes particularly important during the monsoon and post-monsoon periods, when environmental conditions favour transmission.

Despite India’s progress towards a digital welfare state through Digital India, Aadhaar, Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) and UPI, ensuring equality of treatment for Persons with Disabilities (PwDs) remains a major challenge. Fragmented disability pensions, inter-State disparities, limited coverage and administrative barriers continue to restrict equal access to social protection.

Who are Persons with Disabilities?

Persons with Disabilities (PwDs) are individuals with long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments that, in interaction with various barriers, may restrict their full and equal participation in society. India follows a rights-based approach to disability through the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPwD) Act, 2016, which is aligned with the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD).

Current Status of PwDs in India

According to the 2011 Census, India had around 2.68 crore Persons with Disabilities. Current estimates place the number between 4.5 crore and 6 crore, reflecting population growth and changing disease patterns.

The Indira Gandhi National Disability Pension Scheme (IGNDPS) covers only a limited proportion of eligible beneficiaries. Disability pension amounts also vary significantly between States, with many States providing around ₹300–₹500 per month, while some provide between ₹1,000 and ₹3,000. Such variations arise from differences in State policies, domicile requirements and administrative procedures.

India’s expenditure on disability welfare is estimated at only around 0.02% of GDP, which is considerably lower than the expenditure levels cited for South Africa, Brazil, Australia and the OECD average.

Why is Equality of Treatment Important?

Constitutional Mandate

Equality of treatment for PwDs is rooted in the principles of equality under Article 14 and dignity and right to life under Article 21 of the Constitution. Article 41 further directs the State to provide public assistance in cases including disablement, within the limits of its economic capacity.

Rights-Based Social Security

A nationally adequate disability pension would help operationalise Section 24 of the RPwD Act, 2016, which provides for social security and adequate standard of living for persons with disabilities. This would shift disability pensions from a discretionary welfare measure towards a rights-based entitlement.

Inclusive Economic Development

Ensuring adequate social protection for PwDs is essential for inclusive growth because exclusion from education, employment, healthcare and social security can reduce household incomes and economic participation. According to the figures cited in the source material, exclusion of PwDs can result in economic losses equivalent to 3–7% of GDP in low- and middle-income countries.

Household and Economic Security

A reliable disability income can improve household consumption, financial security and labour-force participation. Disability pensions can therefore function not merely as welfare expenditure but as an instrument of social and economic inclusion.

Digital Inclusion

A nationally uniform disability pension system would complement India’s expanding digital welfare architecture. Aadhaar, DBT and UPI can facilitate transparent and timely delivery, provided that digital systems are designed with adequate accessibility and inclusion safeguards.

International Commitments

Strengthening disability social protection would support India’s commitments under the UNCRPD, ILO Recommendation No. 202, SDG Target 1.3 on social protection systems and the G20 New Delhi Leaders’ Declaration.

Minimum Universal Disability Pension Floor Rate (MUDPFR)

The proposed Minimum Universal Disability Pension Floor Rate (MUDPFR) seeks to establish a national minimum disability pension for eligible PwDs irrespective of their State of residence.

The objective is to create a national social security floor while allowing States to provide additional benefits above the nationally prescribed minimum. This approach would combine national uniformity with State-level top-ups.

Key Features of MUDPFR

A Uniform National Pension would guarantee every eligible PwD a minimum level of financial assistance irrespective of domicile or State-specific pension policies.

State Top-ups would allow individual States to provide additional financial assistance according to their fiscal capacity and welfare priorities.

The framework would transform disability pensions from a predominantly welfare-based approach into a rights-based social security entitlement.

It would also promote portability of benefits, allowing eligible beneficiaries to receive their entitlements even when they move between States.

The use of DBT, Aadhaar and UPI could facilitate more transparent and efficient pension disbursement, provided that accessibility barriers are adequately addressed.

Fiscal Feasibility

According to the figures provided, a pension of ₹8,000 per month for 40 lakh beneficiaries would involve an estimated annual expenditure of around ₹38,400 crore, equivalent to approximately 0.08% of GDP.

A pension of ₹10,000 per month for 65 lakh beneficiaries would cost approximately ₹78,000 crore annually. Even a pension of ₹15,000 per month is estimated in the source material to keep total expenditure below 0.2% of GDP, suggesting that a nationally coordinated disability pension floor could be considered within a broader social protection framework.

International Best Practices

Several countries have developed nationally administered disability income-support systems. South Africa provides national disability grants through the South African Social Security Agency (SASSA), while Brazil’s Benefício de Prestação Continuada (BPC) provides a nationally uniform minimum income.

Australia provides nationwide disability support through the National Disability Insurance Agency (NDIA), while New Zealand operates disability support programmes based on national eligibility standards. Kenya, Rwanda, Thailand and Indonesia have also developed national disability income-support mechanisms aimed at improving coverage and portability.

Institutional Reforms Required

National Disability Pension Authority

A dedicated National Disability Pension Authority could coordinate implementation, establish common standards, monitor outcomes and improve policy coordination between the Centre and States.

National Disability Registry

A unified National Disability Registry could improve identification of eligible beneficiaries and facilitate more accurate and timely delivery of social security benefits.

Portability of Benefits

Disability pensions should become portable across States, ensuring that beneficiaries do not lose access to social security merely because they change their place of residence.

Digital Integration

Greater integration with digital welfare platforms and DBT systems can reduce delays, improve transparency and minimise leakages. However, digital delivery must be accompanied by accessible interfaces and assisted service mechanisms.

Grievance Redressal and Monitoring

A strong and accessible grievance-redressal mechanism is necessary to address exclusion and payment-related problems. State-wise implementation should also be assessed through transparent performance indicators.

Centre-State Coordination

Stronger coordination between the Ministry of Rural Development and the Department of Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities (DEPwD) can reduce duplication, administrative delays and gaps in accountability.

Major Government Initiatives

India has undertaken several initiatives aimed at the welfare, empowerment and inclusion of PwDs. These include the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016, Indira Gandhi National Disability Pension Scheme (IGNDPS), Accessible India Campaign (Sugamya Bharat Abhiyan), Unique Disability ID (UDID) Project, Deendayal Disabled Rehabilitation Scheme (DDRS), PM-DAKSH, National Apprenticeship Promotion Scheme (NAPS) and Skill India Mission.

The use of DBT enabled through Aadhaar and UPI further supports the broader objective of improving the efficiency of welfare delivery.

Major Challenges

Regional Disparities

Large differences in pension eligibility, pension amounts and administrative procedures across States create unequal access to social protection.

Limited Coverage and Low Expenditure

A significant proportion of eligible PwDs remain outside formal disability pension coverage, while public expenditure on disability welfare remains low.

Administrative Fragmentation

A fragmented institutional structure can result in duplication, delays and weak accountability, making it difficult for beneficiaries to navigate welfare systems.

Accessibility Barriers

PwDs continue to face inadequate physical, digital, educational, healthcare and workplace accessibility, limiting their effective participation in society.

Employment and Social Barriers

Limited employment opportunities, inadequate workplace accommodation, social stigma and low public awareness continue to hinder the socio-economic inclusion of PwDs.

Weak Implementation

Although the RPwD Act, 2016 provides a strong legal framework, gaps in implementation and enforcement continue to restrict the realisation of disability rights.

Way Forward

India needs to move towards a rights-based, nationally uniform and technology-enabled disability social protection system. Introducing a Minimum Universal Disability Pension Floor Rate (MUDPFR) can establish a basic national standard while allowing States to provide additional top-ups.

A National Disability Pension Authority, a unified disability registry and portable pension benefits can strengthen institutional coordination and reduce regional disparities. Public expenditure on disability welfare should also be progressively increased in line with the broader objective of universal social protection.

Disability pensions should be integrated with skill development, employment and livelihood programmes so that social security complements economic empowerment. Accessibility must be improved across education, healthcare, transport, workplaces and digital services, while employers should be encouraged to promote inclusive employment.

Who was Ahmad Shah Abdali?

Ahmad Shah Abdali, also known as Ahmad Shah Durrani, was the founder of the Durrani Empire and one of the most important Afghan rulers of the 18th century. After the death of Nadir Shah in 1747, Ahmad Shah emerged as the leader of the Afghan forces and established the Durrani Empire.

His Indian campaigns were largely motivated by the pursuit of wealth, political influence and strategic dominance. He invaded India repeatedly, taking advantage of the declining Mughal Empire and the political fragmentation of northern India.

Early Life and Rise

Ahmad Shah Abdali was born in 1722 at Multan, then part of the Mughal Empire. His father, Mohammad Zaman Khan, was associated with Herat and was the head of the Abdali clan. Ahmad Shah belonged to the Sadozai branch of the Popalzai Pashtuns, while his mother belonged to the Alakozai tribe.

The Abdali forces came under the influence of Nadir Shah Afshar, the powerful Persian ruler, during the late 1720s. Ahmad Shah subsequently entered Nadir Shah’s service and rose rapidly through the military hierarchy.

After the capture of Kandahar in 1738, Ahmad Shah gained greater prominence and was given an important position in Nadir Shah’s forces. He served as a yaswal, or personal attendant, and later commanded an Abdali regiment of around 4,000 soldiers.

Ahmad Shah and his Abdali troops participated in Nadir Shah’s invasion of the Mughal Empire in 1738, which exposed him to the political and military conditions of northern India.

Establishment of the Durrani Empire

Following the assassination of Nadir Shah in 1747, Ahmad Shah emerged as the leader of the Afghan tribes and established the Durrani Empire, also known as the Sadozai Kingdom or Afghan Empire.

Ahmad Shah successfully unified several Pashtun tribes with the support of Baloch allies, creating a powerful Afghan state. The ruling Durrani dynasty belonged to the Popalzai branch of the Durrani tribe, which was previously known as the Abdali tribe.

At its height, the Durrani Empire extended across large parts of present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan, as well as territories in Iran, Turkmenistan and northern India. Kashmir and parts of Punjab also came under Durrani influence during Ahmad Shah’s reign.

The Durrani Empire became one of the most powerful Muslim empires of the 18th century, ranking among the major political powers of the region after the Ottoman Empire.

Ahmad Shah Abdali’s Invasions of India

Ahmad Shah Abdali launched repeated invasions of India between 1748 and 1767. His campaigns were facilitated by the political decline of the Mughal Empire, rivalry among regional powers and the wealth of northern India.

His primary objective was to secure wealth and political influence, while also strengthening Afghan power in the Indian subcontinent. His invasions involved repeated attacks on important centres of northern India and contributed to the continuing political instability of the Mughal Empire.

In 1757, Abdali captured Delhi and exercised considerable influence over the Mughal court. He recognised Alamgir II as the Mughal emperor and appointed Najib-ud-Daula as Mir Bakhshi, making him an important Afghan-aligned figure at the Mughal court.

Conflict with the Marathas

The expansion of the Marathas into Punjab directly challenged Abdali’s influence in northern India. In 1758, Raghunath Rao, a prominent Maratha leader, captured Punjab and expelled Najib-ud-Daula.

Abdali returned to India in 1759 to confront the Maratha expansion. This conflict eventually culminated in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, one of the most important battles of 18th-century Indian history.

Third Battle of Panipat, 1761

The Third Battle of Panipat was fought on 14 January 1761 between the Maratha Confederacy and the Afghan forces led by Ahmad Shah Abdali, supported by Indian allies including Najib-ud-Daula and Shuja-ud-Daula.

Abdali's forces achieved a decisive victory over the Marathas. The defeat severely weakened Maratha expansion in North India and created a major power vacuum in the region.

The battle also demonstrated the continuing political importance of Afghanistan in northern Indian affairs and further accelerated the fragmentation of the already weakened Mughal political order.

Significance of Ahmad Shah Abdali

Ahmad Shah Abdali played a major role in the 18th-century political transformation of South Asia. His invasions exposed the weakness of the Mughal Empire, checked the expansion of the Marathas in North India and contributed to the emergence of a new balance of power.

His victory at Panipat in 1761 was particularly significant because it temporarily prevented the Marathas from establishing undisputed political supremacy in northern India. However, the battle did not result in the establishment of permanent Afghan rule over India.

Legacy

Ahmad Shah Abdali is remembered primarily as the founder and architect of the Durrani Empire. His military leadership enabled him to unite diverse Pashtun tribes and establish an Afghan empire extending across parts of Central, South and West Asia.

The Durrani dynasty continued after his death, but its political power gradually declined. It was eventually succeeded by the Barakzai dynasty in the early 19th century.

The Sustainable Development Report (SDR) 2026 is the 11th edition of the annual global assessment of progress towards the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It is published by the United Nations Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN) and assesses 167 countries using internationally comparable indicators covering all 17 SDGs.

The report provides the SDG Index and Dashboards, ranks countries according to their overall SDG performance, identifies major global, regional and national implementation gaps, and highlights policy priorities for accelerating SDG achievement. The 2026 edition places particular emphasis on the global implementation gap, as the world enters the final years of the 2030 Agenda.

Key Global Findings

The global outlook remains challenging, as only 16% of SDG targets are projected to be achieved by 2030. None of the 17 SDGs is currently on track to be fully achieved globally by the 2030 deadline. At the same time, East and South Asia have emerged as the fastest-improving regions in SDG implementation since 2015.

Finland retained the first position in the global SDG Index, followed by Sweden and Denmark. However, even the highest-ranked countries continue to face significant challenges in areas such as Responsible Consumption and Production, Climate Action, Life Below Water and Life on Land.

The largest global implementation gaps remain in Sustainable Cities and Communities, Life Below Water, Life on Land, and Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions. Weak performance is also associated with sustainable agriculture, obesity, administrative justice, press freedom and corruption.

Despite these challenges, substantial progress has been recorded in electricity access, mobile broadband connectivity, internet usage, declining adolescent fertility rates and reduction in HIV infections.

India’s Performance

India secured the 94th position among 167 countries in the SDG Index 2026, with an overall score of 68.3 out of 100. This represents India’s highest-ever ranking since the adoption of the SDGs in 2015 and an improvement of 18 positions since 2015.

Despite this improvement, India continues to rank behind Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal and Sri Lanka in South Asia. Only 33.3% of India’s SDG targets are expected to be achieved by 2030, while 42.7% are progressing slowly and 24% have deteriorated.

Major Challenges for India

India continues to face significant challenges in Zero Hunger, Good Health and Well-being, Gender Equality, Sustainable Cities and Communities, Life Below Water, Life on Land, and Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions.

Zero Hunger remains one of India’s biggest development challenges because of persistent child stunting, increasing child wasting, undernourishment and rising adult obesity. Health outcomes also remain a concern because of increasing deaths associated with air pollution and non-communicable diseases.

India’s performance in Climate Action has weakened due to rising carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels and cement production. The report also identifies continuing concerns regarding institutional quality, corruption perception and press freedom.

Areas of Progress in India

India has made notable progress in expanding electricity access, mobile broadband connectivity and internet penetration, thereby strengthening digital inclusion and infrastructure development.

India’s progress is particularly significant for global SDG achievement because the country accounts for nearly one-sixth of the global population. Improvements in poverty reduction, nutrition, healthcare, clean energy and climate resilience in India can therefore have a substantial impact on global progress towards the 2030 Agenda.

Sustainable Development Goals

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) constitute a universal framework comprising 17 interconnected goals and 169 targets, adopted by all 193 UN Member States in 2015 under the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The goals aim to eradicate poverty, reduce inequalities, promote inclusive growth, protect the environment and ensure peace and prosperity by 2030.

The SDGs emerged from the evolution of the global sustainable development agenda, including the Brundtland Commission Report (1987), the Millennium Development Goals (2000–2015) and the Rio+20 Summit (2012).

The 17 SDGs

SDG 1 – No Poverty focuses on ending poverty in all its forms. SDG 2 – Zero Hunger seeks to eliminate hunger, improve nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture. SDG 3 – Good Health and Well-being aims to ensure healthy lives and well-being for all.

SDG 4 – Quality Education promotes inclusive and equitable quality education. SDG 5 – Gender Equality seeks to achieve gender equality and empower women and girls. SDG 6 – Clean Water and Sanitation focuses on universal access to water and sanitation.

SDG 7 – Affordable and Clean Energy promotes access to reliable, sustainable and modern energy. SDG 8 – Decent Work and Economic Growth promotes sustained economic growth and productive employment. SDG 9 – Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure focuses on resilient infrastructure, sustainable industrialisation and innovation.

SDG 10 – Reduced Inequalities seeks to reduce inequality within and among countries. SDG 11 – Sustainable Cities and Communities promotes inclusive, safe and sustainable urban settlements. SDG 12 – Responsible Consumption and Production promotes sustainable resource use and production patterns.

SDG 13 – Climate Action focuses on combating climate change and its impacts. SDG 14 – Life Below Water seeks to conserve and sustainably use oceans and marine resources. SDG 15 – Life on Land focuses on terrestrial ecosystems, forests, biodiversity and land degradation.

SDG 16 – Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions promotes peaceful societies, access to justice and accountable institutions. SDG 17 – Partnerships for the Goals focuses on strengthening international cooperation and means of implementation.

India’s Institutional Framework for SDG Implementation

India has established an institutional framework for monitoring and implementing the SDGs. NITI Aayog acts as the nodal institution through the SDG India Index and Dashboard, promoting cooperative and competitive federalism among States and Union Territories.

The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) monitors national SDG progress through the National Indicator Framework (NIF), comprising 277 indicators, with support from the Data for Development Coordination Forum (DDCF).

The Ministry of Panchayati Raj promotes localisation of SDGs through the Local Indicator Framework (LIF) and the Panchayat Advancement Index (PAI), supporting grassroots implementation across more than 2.5 lakh Gram Panchayats.

Major Indian Initiatives Supporting SDGs

Social Development and Basic Services

India’s efforts towards SDG 1 – No Poverty are supported by initiatives such as PM Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana, PM Jan Dhan Yojana, PM Vishwakarma and the Aspirational Districts Programme. SDG 2 – Zero Hunger is supported by Poshan 2.0, PM POSHAN, the National Food Security Act and PM Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana.

For SDG 3 – Good Health and Well-being, major initiatives include Ayushman Bharat PM-JAY, Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission, National Health Mission and PM Jan Aushadhi Pariyojana. SDG 4 – Quality Education is supported by NEP 2020, PM SHRI Schools, Samagra Shiksha and NIPUN Bharat.

SDG 5 – Gender Equality is supported through initiatives such as Mission Shakti, Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, Namo Drone Didi and Lakhpati Didi. SDG 6 – Clean Water and Sanitation is supported by Jal Jeevan Mission, Swachh Bharat Mission 2.0, Jal Shakti Abhiyan: Catch the Rain and Namami Gange.

Energy, Economy and Infrastructure

For SDG 7 – Affordable and Clean Energy, major initiatives include PM Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana, National Green Hydrogen Mission, PM-KUSUM and National Bioenergy Programme. SDG 8 – Decent Work and Economic Growth is supported by the Employment Linked Incentive Scheme, PM Internship Scheme, Skill India Mission and Startup India.

SDG 9 – Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure is supported through PM Gati Shakti, IndiaAI Mission, Make in India and India Semiconductor Mission. For SDG 10 – Reduced Inequalities, important initiatives include PM JANMAN, PM-DevINE, Direct Benefit Transfer and the Aspirational Blocks Programme.

Environment and Climate Action

SDG 11 – Sustainable Cities and Communities is supported through Smart Cities Mission, AMRUT 2.0, PM-eBus Sewa and PMAY-Urban 2.0. SDG 12 – Responsible Consumption and Production is promoted through Mission LiFE, Green Credit Programme, Extended Producer Responsibility and Plastic Waste Management Rules.

For SDG 13 – Climate Action, India has undertaken initiatives such as the National Green Hydrogen Mission, Mission LiFE, National Action Plan on Climate Change and National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change. SDG 14 – Life Below Water is supported through Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana, Blue Economy initiatives, Deep Ocean Mission and the Coastal Regulation Zone framework.

SDG 15 – Life on Land is supported by initiatives such as MISHTI, Aravalli Green Wall Project, Green India Mission and Project Tiger. SDG 16 – Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions is supported through the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita and allied criminal laws, e-Courts Phase III, Mission Karmayogi and Digital India.

Finally, SDG 17 – Partnerships for the Goals is supported through international initiatives such as the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI), Global Biofuels Alliance, India-UN Development Partnership Fund and International Solar Alliance.

Kudremukh National Park is one of India’s most ecologically significant protected areas, located in the Central Western Ghats of Karnataka. It is known for its rich biodiversity, shola-grassland ecosystem, watershed functions and ecological importance.

Location and Geographical Features

Kudremukh National Park is situated at the tri-junction of Chikkamagaluru, Dakshina Kannada and Udupi districts of Karnataka and forms an important part of the Central Western Ghats. The park covers an area of about 600.32 sq. km, with elevations ranging from nearly 100 metres to 1,894 metres.

The park derives its name from Kudremukh Peak, which rises to 1,894 metres and is the second-highest peak in Karnataka after Mullayanagiri. The mountain resembles the face of a horse, giving rise to the name Kudremukh, meaning “Horse Face.” It was historically known as Samseparvata.

Legal Status and Conservation Significance

The region was notified as a Reserved Forest in 1916 and was subsequently declared a National Park in 1987 following biodiversity surveys that highlighted its exceptional ecological importance, particularly its population of the Lion-tailed Macaque.

Kudremukh forms part of the Western Ghats Biodiversity Hotspot and is also recognised within a Global Tiger Conservation Priority-I Landscape, reflecting its importance for the conservation of globally threatened species and habitats.

Geographical and Hydrological Importance

Kudremukh is one of the most important watershed landscapes of Peninsular India and is often described as the “Water Tower of Karnataka.” Its forests play a crucial role in water retention, groundwater recharge, stream-flow regulation and maintaining perennial river systems.

The Gangamoola Hills within the Kudremukh landscape are the source of three major rivers—the Tunga, Bhadra and Netravathi. The Tunga and Bhadra flow eastwards and eventually merge to form the Tungabhadra River, an important tributary of the Krishna River. In contrast, the Netravathi River flows westwards and drains into the Arabian Sea.

Several other important rivers and streams, including the Gurupura, Swarna, Seethanadhi and Yenehole, also originate from the region. Therefore, Kudremukh supports both east-flowing Deccan drainage systems and west-flowing coastal river systems, making it important for the water security of Karnataka.

Forest Ecosystem

The park contains a diverse mosaic of tropical wet evergreen forests, shola forests, montane grasslands and moist deciduous forests. The combination of high rainfall, mountainous terrain and varied elevation creates a range of habitats that support exceptional floral and faunal diversity.

The shola-grassland ecosystem is particularly important because the forest patches and montane grasslands regulate water flow, soil moisture and local climate, while also providing habitats for numerous endemic Western Ghats species.

Biodiversity

Kudremukh is one of the important biodiversity landscapes of the Western Ghats and provides habitat to several endemic, endangered and threatened species. It is particularly significant for the Lion-tailed Macaque, an endangered primate endemic to the Western Ghats.

The park also supports important mammals such as tigers, leopards, dholes, gaurs, sloth bears, Malabar Giant Squirrels and sambar deer. Its bird diversity is also significant, with nearly 200 bird species recorded, including the Malabar Trogon, Malabar Whistling Thrush and Imperial Pigeon.

Wildlife Corridor

Kudremukh plays an important role as a wildlife corridor connecting the Bhadra Tiger Reserve with protected areas such as Someshwara, Mookambika, Pushpagiri, Talacauvery, Brahmagiri and Nagarahole.