Growing cyberattacks, increasing geopolitical tensions, and India's dependence on foreign digital infrastructure have intensified the debate on Digital Sovereignty. Recent incidents, including the 2026 hacking of Indian CCTV networks through Chinese EseeCloud software and the 2025 disruption of Nayara Energy's cloud services due to international sanctions, have highlighted the strategic risks associated with excessive reliance on foreign technologies. These developments have strengthened India's resolve to build indigenous digital capabilities and secure its critical digital infrastructure.

What is Digital Sovereignty?

Digital Sovereignty refers to a nation's ability to exercise independent and effective control over its digital infrastructure, data, communication networks, and critical technologies without undue dependence on or interference from foreign governments and multinational corporations. It enables a country to safeguard its national security, economic interests, technological autonomy, and strategic decision-making in the digital age.

Digital sovereignty rests upon three fundamental pillars. The first is Data Sovereignty, which ensures that citizens' data remains subject to domestic laws and judicial oversight. The second is Computational Sovereignty, which focuses on developing indigenous cloud computing, Artificial Intelligence (AI), and digital infrastructure. The third pillar is Technological Autonomy, which aims to establish secure domestic supply chains for hardware, software, semiconductors, and communication technologies.

Why Does India Need Digital Sovereignty?

The growing digitalisation of governance, defence, finance, and critical infrastructure has transformed technology into a strategic asset. Consequently, digital sovereignty has become essential for ensuring India's national security, economic resilience, and technological independence.

Emergence of Software-Defined Warfare

Modern defence platforms, including fighter aircraft, missile systems, drones, satellites, and radar networks, increasingly depend on embedded software developed by foreign manufacturers. Such dependence creates serious national security vulnerabilities, as external vendors may theoretically possess the capability to disable or manipulate critical defence systems through hidden software controls or "kill switches."

India's experience during the 1999 Kargil War, when access to GPS support was denied by the United States, demonstrated the strategic risks associated with dependence on foreign digital technologies. This experience continues to influence India's pursuit of indigenous technological capabilities.

Data Governance and Jurisdictional Challenges

Many countries assume that data localisation alone is sufficient for digital sovereignty. However, merely storing data within India's territorial boundaries does not guarantee complete control over it.

For instance, under legislations such as the United States CLOUD Act, American technology companies may be legally compelled to provide access to data requested by U.S. authorities, irrespective of whether the servers are physically located in India. Consequently, true digital sovereignty requires not only domestic data storage but also legal and technological independence.

Reducing Dependence on Foreign Digital Infrastructure

India's heavy reliance on foreign cloud service providers exposes critical sectors to geopolitical risks. The 2025 Nayara Energy incident, in which cloud services were reportedly suspended because of international sanctions, demonstrated how external political decisions can disrupt essential economic infrastructure within India.

Such incidents underline the importance of developing indigenous cloud infrastructure capable of supporting critical government services, financial institutions, and strategic industries.

Preventing Algorithmic Hegemony

Artificial Intelligence increasingly influences governance, policymaking, judicial systems, healthcare, education, and business decision-making. Dependence on foreign AI models may result in the incorporation of external cultural assumptions, legal principles, and political biases into domestic decision-making processes.

Developing sovereign AI models ensures that AI systems reflect India's constitutional values, linguistic diversity, socio-economic realities, and strategic priorities rather than foreign interests.

Ensuring Financial Sovereignty

Recent geopolitical developments have demonstrated how international financial systems can be weaponised. Restrictions imposed through global financial messaging systems such as SWIFT illustrate the strategic vulnerability of countries dependent upon external financial infrastructure.

Strengthening indigenous payment systems like Unified Payments Interface (UPI) and expanding digital financial infrastructure enhances India's financial sovereignty and reduces vulnerability to external sanctions.

Protecting National Data and Regulatory Autonomy

Large multinational technology corporations increasingly derive enormous economic value from the personal data generated by Indian citizens. This phenomenon is often described as Digital Colonialism, where domestic data is extracted, processed abroad using proprietary technologies, and monetised in foreign markets.

Additionally, certain international trade agreements seek unrestricted cross-border data flows and limitations on source-code inspections, potentially reducing India's ability to regulate emerging technologies effectively.

Achieving Hardware Independence

Digital sovereignty cannot be realised without hardware sovereignty. India's dependence on imported semiconductors exposes critical infrastructure to risks such as hardware trojans, supply chain disruptions, export restrictions, and geopolitical tensions.

Developing domestic semiconductor manufacturing has therefore become an important national priority.

Strengthening Strategic Autonomy

According to the Power Transition Theory, emerging powers often encounter technological restrictions imposed by established global powers seeking to preserve strategic dominance.

The ongoing United States–China technology competition illustrates how technology has become an instrument of geopolitical influence. Building indigenous digital capabilities enables India to maintain strategic autonomy and pursue independent foreign and economic policies.

Major Challenges to Achieving Digital Sovereignty

Despite significant progress, India continues to face several structural challenges in establishing complete digital sovereignty.

One of the foremost challenges is the Semiconductor Chokepoint. Although the India Semiconductor Mission (ISM) is strengthening domestic chip packaging and assembly, advanced semiconductor fabrication still depends heavily on foreign technologies such as Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) lithography and specialised precision chemicals. This dependence leaves India vulnerable to export controls and technology restrictions.

Another challenge arises from the country's Cable Sovereignty Deficit. More than 95% of India's international internet traffic travels through undersea submarine cables. The absence of an indigenous cable-repair fleet increases vulnerability to disruptions caused by sabotage, natural disasters, or military conflicts.

India also faces an AI Compute Gap. While the IndiaAI Mission is establishing sovereign computing infrastructure through approximately 38,000 Graphics Processing Units (GPUs), this capacity remains significantly smaller than the investments made annually by global technology giants, which spend tens of billions of dollars on AI infrastructure.

A further concern is the inability to inspect the proprietary source code of foreign software deployed in critical sectors such as banking, aviation, telecommunications, and power generation. This creates a "black box" situation where hidden vulnerabilities may remain undetected.

The emergence of Quantum Computing introduces another major challenge. Future quantum computers could potentially break conventional encryption methods through "Harvest Now, Decrypt Later" attacks. Migrating India's critical infrastructure to Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) will require substantial financial resources and technical expertise.

India also encounters a Regulatory Reciprocity Paradox during international trade negotiations, where developed countries frequently advocate unrestricted data flows and oppose mandatory source-code disclosures, creating tension with India's sovereign digital policy objectives.

Limited participation in global standard-setting institutions such as the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) further constrains India's influence over future technologies like 5G, 6G, Artificial Intelligence, and Internet of Things (IoT).

Finally, India continues to experience shortages of patient capital, deep-tech investment, and specialised scientific talent in emerging fields such as quantum computing, semiconductor physics, and advanced materials.

Government Initiatives Promoting Digital Sovereignty

Recognising these challenges, the Government of India has launched several initiatives to strengthen indigenous digital capabilities.

The India Semiconductor Mission (ISM) aims to establish a robust domestic semiconductor manufacturing ecosystem and reduce dependence on imported chips.

The IndiaAI Mission seeks to create sovereign AI infrastructure while supporting indigenous language models such as BharatGen and BHASHINI, thereby promoting AI applications across Indian languages.

The National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM) focuses on securing strategic minerals such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, and rare earth elements, which are essential for semiconductors, batteries, and advanced electronics.

India's globally acclaimed Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI), comprising Aadhaar, Unified Payments Interface (UPI), DigiLocker, Account Aggregator, and the Open Network for Digital Commerce (ONDC), provides open, interoperable digital platforms that reduce dependence on private technology monopolies.

The MeghRaj Government Cloud (GI Cloud) enables secure hosting of government data within sovereign domestic infrastructure.

To prepare for emerging cybersecurity threats, the National Quantum Mission (NQM) and the Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Roadmap (2026) seek to transition India's critical information infrastructure towards quantum-resistant encryption systems.

The National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC) continuously monitors cyber threats, audits critical infrastructure, and strengthens national cyber resilience.

The Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023 establishes India's legal framework for data protection, privacy, and cross-border data governance under Indian jurisdiction.

India is also expanding trusted international technology partnerships, including participation in initiatives such as Pax Silica, to build resilient semiconductor and AI supply chains.

Way Forward

India's digital sovereignty strategy must extend beyond data localisation towards achieving comprehensive technological self-reliance. Public and private investments in semiconductor fabrication, Artificial Intelligence, quantum computing, cybersecurity, cloud infrastructure, and indigenous software ecosystems should be significantly enhanced.

Simultaneously, India must strengthen its participation in international technology governance institutions to influence emerging global standards. Developing a strong domestic innovation ecosystem through increased Research and Development (R&D) expenditure, deep-tech financing, startup support, and skilled human capital will be critical.

Finally, digital sovereignty should be viewed not as technological isolation but as strategic technological resilience, enabling India to collaborate globally while retaining independent control over its critical digital assets.

Conclusion

In the twenty-first century, digital infrastructure has become as strategically important as physical infrastructure. India's experience with cyberattacks, global geopolitical tensions, and technological dependencies demonstrates that Digital Sovereignty is no longer merely a technological aspiration but a national security imperative. Through initiatives such as the India Semiconductor Mission, IndiaAI Mission, Digital Public Infrastructure, National Quantum Mission, and the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, India is laying the foundation for an independent, secure, and resilient digital ecosystem. Sustained investment in indigenous innovation, strategic technologies, and institutional capacity will enable India to emerge as a globally competitive digital power while safeguarding its sovereignty in the digital age.

The India–Oman Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) came into force on 1 June 2026, becoming the latest addition to India's expanding network of Free Trade Agreements (FTAs). India now has 15 FTAs covering 27 countries, while nine additional agreements involving 42 countries are under negotiation. Once these negotiations are concluded, nearly 75% of India's exports could be covered under FTAs. Although these agreements significantly enhance India's global economic integration, they have also brought attention to several structural challenges, including rising trade deficits, low utilisation of FTA benefits, inverted duty structures, and relocation of manufacturing to partner countries.

What is a Free Trade Agreement (FTA)?

A Free Trade Agreement (FTA) is an agreement between two or more countries that seeks to reduce or eliminate tariffs, quotas, and other trade barriers to facilitate the free movement of goods and services. Modern FTAs extend far beyond merchandise trade and generally include provisions relating to services, investment, intellectual property rights, digital trade, government procurement, dispute settlement, and customs cooperation. The primary objective of an FTA is to improve market access, promote exports, attract investments, integrate economies into Global Value Chains (GVCs), and enhance overall economic competitiveness.

India's Expanding FTA Network

India has steadily shifted towards a more proactive trade policy over the past few years. Along with agreements already operational with countries such as the UAE, Australia, Mauritius, EFTA nations, and Oman, negotiations are progressing with major partners including the European Union, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and several others. This expanding trade architecture reflects India's strategy of integrating itself more deeply into global markets while supporting the vision of Viksit Bharat.

Despite this progress, India's experience with FTAs has revealed several concerns that require policy attention.

Rising Trade Deficits with FTA Partners

One of the most significant concerns is the continuous increase in India's trade deficit with many of its major FTA partners. Between 2007–09 and 2024–25, India's trade deficit with ASEAN increased by about 381%, while deficits with Japan and South Korea increased by 318% and 268%, respectively. During the same period, India's trade deficit with the rest of the world rose by only 142%, indicating that the increase has been disproportionately higher with FTA partners.

Similarly, under the newer FTAs involving the UAE, Australia, Mauritius, and EFTA countries, India exported goods worth US$48.6 billion during FY2025–26 but imported nearly US$100 billion, resulting in a trade deficit exceeding US$50 billion.

An important exception, however, is South Asia, where India's trade surplus has expanded substantially from US$6.7 billion to nearly US$20 billion, reflecting stronger export competitiveness within the neighbourhood.

The principal reason behind these widening deficits lies in the asymmetry of tariff structures. While India's trade-weighted Most Favoured Nation (MFN) tariff remains around 12.6%, many developed trading partners already maintained very low tariff levels even before entering into FTAs. Consequently, tariff reductions under FTAs have benefited foreign exporters entering the Indian market much more than Indian exporters accessing overseas markets.

Low Utilisation of FTA Benefits by Indian Exporters

Although India has negotiated preferential market access through multiple FTAs, a surprisingly small proportion of Indian exporters actually utilise these benefits. Studies indicate that only 20–30% of eligible Indian exports make use of FTA preferences, whereas nearly 60–70% of imports into India utilise these preferential tariff concessions.

This low utilisation primarily arises because most partner countries already impose very low MFN tariffs, leaving only marginal tariff savings for Indian exporters. In many cases, these limited benefits do not justify the costs associated with complying with Rules of Origin (RoO), obtaining certificates of origin, completing extensive documentation, and fulfilling other procedural requirements.

Thus, despite having access to preferential trade arrangements, many Indian exporters continue exporting under normal MFN rates rather than availing FTA benefits.

The Problem of Inverted Duty Structure

Another major issue emerging from India's FTAs is the worsening Inverted Duty Structure (IDS). An inverted duty structure exists when import duties on raw materials and intermediate goods are higher than duties on finished products.

This creates a serious disadvantage for domestic manufacturers. Industries within India continue to import essential inputs such as steel, aluminium, chemicals, plastics, caustic soda, soda ash, polypropylene, PVC, and Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR) by paying significant import duties. At the same time, finished products manufactured abroad using these very inputs are imported into India at low or even zero tariffs under FTAs.

As a consequence, Indian manufacturers face higher production costs than foreign competitors. This discourages domestic value addition, weakens industrial competitiveness, and undermines flagship initiatives such as Make in India and Atmanirbhar Bharat.

The Emerging 'Make in ASEAN, Sell in India' Phenomenon

One of the unintended consequences of India's FTAs has been the gradual relocation of manufacturing activities to neighbouring FTA partner countries. Since importing industrial inputs into India often remains expensive due to tariffs, many companies find it economically more viable to establish manufacturing units in countries such as Vietnam, Thailand, and Indonesia. Finished goods produced in these countries can subsequently be exported to India under preferential tariff arrangements.

This trend, popularly described as "Make in ASEAN, Sell in India," has gained momentum with increasing investments by both Chinese companies and Indian firms across Southeast Asia.

Sectors such as electronics, chemicals, engineering goods, consumer products, plastics, and steel have witnessed significant production shifts. Over time, this could result in reduced domestic investment, slower industrial growth, fewer employment opportunities, and weakened supply-chain resilience within India.

Structural Causes Behind These Challenges

The underlying cause behind most of these concerns is the difference in tariff structures between India and its FTA partners. India's comparatively higher MFN tariffs create substantial incentives for foreign producers to access the Indian market through FTAs, whereas Indian exporters receive relatively limited additional market access because partner countries had already liberalised their tariffs.

Consequently, India experiences two simultaneous outcomes. Imports increase rapidly due to preferential tariff access, while exports do not expand proportionately because Indian firms derive only modest additional benefits from existing FTAs.

Government Initiatives to Maximise FTA Benefits

Recognising these challenges, the Government of India has increasingly focused on negotiating high-quality and comprehensive trade agreements. Recent agreements with the United Arab Emirates, Australia, EFTA countries, and Oman include provisions extending beyond tariff reductions to cover investment facilitation, services, customs cooperation, digital trade, and regulatory harmonisation.

Simultaneously, flagship programmes such as Make in India, Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme, Atmanirbhar Bharat, and initiatives promoting Global Value Chain integration seek to strengthen India's domestic manufacturing base and improve export competitiveness.

Way Forward

India's future trade strategy should focus not merely on signing more FTAs but on ensuring that existing agreements genuinely strengthen domestic industry. The first priority should be to rationalise import duties on industrial inputs, thereby eliminating inverted duty structures and improving manufacturing competitiveness.

Equally important is simplifying Rules of Origin, reducing documentation requirements, digitising certification systems, and lowering compliance costs so that a much larger proportion of Indian exporters can utilise FTA preferences.

Regular assessment of FTAs should also become an integral part of trade policy. Their impact on trade balance, employment generation, industrial growth, export competitiveness, and investment flows should be periodically evaluated, allowing corrective policy interventions whenever necessary.

Finally, India's trade policy must remain closely aligned with broader industrial objectives such as Make in India, Atmanirbhar Bharat, National Manufacturing Mission, and deeper participation in Global Value Chains, ensuring that trade liberalisation complements domestic economic development rather than weakening it.

Conclusion

India's expanding network of Free Trade Agreements represents an important milestone in its journey towards greater global economic integration. Agreements such as the India–Oman CEPA create significant opportunities for exports, investment, and international competitiveness. However, the persistence of rising trade deficits, low utilisation of FTA benefits, inverted duty structures, and relocation of manufacturing activities highlights important structural weaknesses that require urgent policy attention. By rationalising tariffs, simplifying compliance procedures, strengthening domestic manufacturing, and integrating trade policy with industrial development, India can ensure that FTAs become instruments of sustainable growth, employment generation, technological advancement, and the realization of Viksit Bharat 2047 rather than merely facilitating increased imports.

Growing discussions on India's Artificial Intelligence (AI) strategy, along with the implementation of the IndiaAI Mission and the push for sovereign AI capabilities, have renewed focus on treating AI as a Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) similar to Aadhaar, UPI, and affordable internet. Policymakers are increasingly advocating free or affordable AI tokens and indigenous AI infrastructure to democratize AI access and accelerate India's transition towards an innovation-driven economy.

Background: From the 'Hindu Rate of Growth' to the 'Bharat Rate of Growth'

For nearly four decades after Independence, India's economy grew at an average annual rate of around 3%, popularly known as the "Hindu Rate of Growth." This period was characterized by extensive government controls, low productivity, limited industrial expansion, and modest private sector participation.

The 1991 Balance of Payments (BoP) crisis became a turning point in India's economic history, leading to sweeping economic liberalization, deregulation, and market-oriented reforms. These reforms unleashed entrepreneurship, attracted investment, and significantly accelerated economic growth.

Today, Artificial Intelligence (AI) is being viewed as the next transformative technology capable of driving India's economy towards sustained annual growth of 8% or higher, making AI a potential catalyst for achieving the vision of Viksit Bharat 2047.

India's Track Record in Digital Leapfrogging

India has repeatedly demonstrated its ability to leapfrog traditional stages of technological development by building world-class Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI).

The launch of Aadhaar, the world's largest biometric digital identity system with over 1.3 billion enrollments, revolutionized welfare delivery, financial inclusion, and identity verification by enabling targeted and transparent delivery of government benefits.

Similarly, the Unified Payments Interface (UPI) transformed India's payment ecosystem. Today, UPI processes nearly 50% of all real-time digital transactions globally, making India a global leader in digital payments and financial innovation.

The Affordable Data Revolution, triggered primarily by the entry of Reliance Jio, drastically reduced mobile internet costs and made India one of the world's largest consumers of mobile data. Affordable internet created a digital ecosystem that enabled rapid adoption of e-commerce, digital education, fintech, telemedicine, and e-governance.

These successful examples demonstrate that building accessible digital infrastructure first creates large-scale innovation and adoption later. A similar ecosystem-based approach is now being proposed for Artificial Intelligence.

Why India Needs Affordable or Free AI Tokens

AI tokens are the fundamental computational units consumed whenever users interact with Generative AI systems such as Large Language Models (LLMs). Every prompt, response, translation, summarization, or AI-generated output requires token processing.

Making AI tokens free or highly affordable can democratize access to advanced AI capabilities across education, research, governance, healthcare, agriculture, and entrepreneurship.

Universal AI access would enable students, researchers, teachers, scientists, start-ups, and public institutions to use AI as a "cognitive teammate", improving productivity, creativity, innovation, and decision-making.

Need for Greater Public Investment in AI

India currently spends only about 0.65% of GDP on Research and Development (R&D), substantially lower than major innovation-driven economies.

• China: ~2.4% of GDP

• United States: ~3.5%

• South Korea: ~4.9%

• Israel: ~5.4%

This relatively low investment limits India's ability to develop indigenous frontier technologies and remain globally competitive.

Experts argue that allocating approximately 0.06% of GDP to provide subsidized AI access for IITs, IISc, research laboratories, universities, and selected schools would create enormous long-term economic benefits. Compared to existing public expenditure on food, fertilizer, and energy subsidies, such investment would be relatively modest while generating substantial gains in innovation and human capital development.

Major Challenges Before India's AI Ecosystem

Despite enormous opportunities, India faces several structural challenges in developing a globally competitive AI ecosystem.

A significant concern is the digital divide, where unequal access to computing infrastructure and internet connectivity could widen socio-economic inequalities.

Rapid AI adoption also raises issues related to data privacy, cybersecurity, ethical AI, algorithmic bias, and the spread of misinformation and deepfakes, requiring robust regulatory safeguards.

Another challenge is the high energy requirement of AI data centres and supercomputing facilities, which necessitates sustainable energy planning and efficient computing infrastructure.

Funding Models for Affordable AI Access

One proposed approach is the Public-Private Partnership (PPP) model, where the Government collaborates with major cloud computing providers such as Amazon Web Services (AWS), Google Cloud, and Microsoft Azure.

Instead of providing only fiscal incentives or land for data centres, the Government could negotiate concessional AI computing capacity for educational institutions, research organizations, and start-ups.

A cross-subsidy model is another viable option. Under this approach, commercial enterprise subscriptions would subsidize free or low-cost AI access for universities, research institutions, and public sector organizations.

The Government's primary role would be creating an enabling regulatory environment rather than directly financing the entire ecosystem, similar to the successful evolution of India's telecom sector.

Need for Sovereign AI Infrastructure

Relying exclusively on foreign AI Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) could expose India to long-term technological dependence, licensing restrictions, supply disruptions, and strategic vulnerabilities.

Therefore, India needs indigenous capability to develop, train, host, and operate Large Language Models (LLMs) within the country.

Initiatives under the IndiaAI Mission, along with indigenous companies such as Sarvam AI, represent important steps toward building Sovereign AI Infrastructure, reducing dependence on foreign AI providers.

Just as India's space programme, nuclear programme, and Digital Public Infrastructure became strategic national assets, AI infrastructure is increasingly viewed as a critical component of national technological sovereignty.

Advantages of Open-Source and Sovereign AI Models

Developing open-source AI models offers several strategic advantages.

They strengthen technological independence by reducing dependence on proprietary foreign AI platforms and minimizing recurring licensing costs.

Open-source models can be adapted efficiently for all 22 Scheduled Indian Languages, enabling inclusive AI applications across India's diverse linguistic landscape.

Their transparent architecture improves auditability, making them especially suitable for sensitive government applications requiring accountability and public trust.

Furthermore, sovereign AI systems provide greater control over data residency, cybersecurity, privacy protection, and regulatory compliance, ensuring that critical national data remains within India's jurisdiction.

Diversification of Computing Infrastructure

Excessive dependence on a single AI hardware provider—particularly NVIDIA—could create financial and strategic risks.

Experts recommend diversifying India's AI computing infrastructure through multiple hardware platforms.

A balanced approach could involve:

• Approximately 40% computing capacity based on AWS Trainium and AMD hardware for cost-effective inference.

• Around 30% utilizing Google Tensor Processing Units (TPUs) for academic research and AI model training.

• The remaining 30% relying on NVIDIA GPUs for advanced AI workloads requiring maximum computational performance.

Such diversification would lower costs, prevent vendor lock-in, improve resilience, and strengthen India's technological autonomy.

Proposed National AI Token Policy

A phased implementation strategy has been suggested for building India's AI ecosystem.

Phase I would involve launching a National AI Token Policy, establishing sovereign AI computing partnerships, and providing unrestricted AI access to premier institutions such as IITs, IISc, and national research laboratories.

Phase II would expand affordable AI access to universities, start-ups, and innovation ecosystems while establishing AI sandboxes and integrating AI literacy into school education.

Phase III would focus on developing sovereign Indic AI benchmarks, deploying AI across sectors such as healthcare, agriculture, judiciary, and education, and ensuring high-quality AI services in all major Indian languages.

Significance for India

Treating AI as Digital Public Infrastructure has the potential to democratize access to cutting-edge technology, stimulate innovation, improve governance, strengthen research, enhance productivity, and generate high-value employment.

Affordable AI access can significantly improve learning outcomes, scientific research, public service delivery, healthcare diagnostics, judicial efficiency, agricultural advisory services, and industrial competitiveness.

By building sovereign AI infrastructure, promoting open-source innovation, and ensuring affordable AI tokens, India can reduce technological dependence while becoming a global leader in trustworthy, inclusive, and multilingual Artificial Intelligence.

Conclusion

India's remarkable success with Aadhaar, UPI, and the Affordable Data Revolution demonstrates that well-designed Digital Public Infrastructure can transform society at an unprecedented scale. Extending the same philosophy to Artificial Intelligence through affordable AI tokens, sovereign computing infrastructure, and open AI ecosystems can usher in a new era of innovation-led economic growth. With timely policy support, sustained investment, and strategic public-private collaboration, India has the opportunity not only to participate in the global AI revolution but also to emerge as one of its leading architects, accelerating its journey towards Viksit Bharat 2047.

Recently, the Digital India BHASHINI Division (DIBD) signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the Centre for Digital Public Infrastructure & Artificial Intelligence (DPI-AI), Kathmandu University, Nepal. The partnership aims to strengthen collaboration in multilingual Artificial Intelligence (AI), Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI), and language technology, while promoting cross-border innovation in inclusive digital governance.

About the Digital India BHASHINI Division (DIBD)

The Digital India BHASHINI Division (DIBD) functions under the Digital India Corporation (DIC), which operates under the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY). It serves as India's national initiative for AI-driven multilingual digital inclusion, with the objective of making digital services accessible to citizens in their preferred languages.

The initiative seeks to eliminate language barriers in the digital ecosystem by leveraging Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Natural Language Processing (NLP) technologies. Through advanced speech and text-based language solutions, BHASHINI enables citizens to seamlessly access government services, digital platforms, educational resources, and public information in multiple Indian languages.

National Hub for Language Technology (NHLT)

At the core of the BHASHINI initiative is the National Hub for Language Technology (NHLT), which provides a scalable platform for developing and deploying multilingual AI services. The NHLT facilitates speech recognition, machine translation, speech synthesis, transliteration, and other language-processing technologies that support governance, public institutions, businesses, and digital platforms.

The platform enables government departments to deliver citizen-centric services in diverse regional languages, thereby advancing the vision of inclusive digital governance.

Key Features of the BHASHINI Platform

The BHASHINI platform provides a comprehensive suite of AI and Natural Language Processing (NLP) resources that are openly accessible to MSMEs, start-ups, research institutions, developers, and individual innovators. By making these language technologies available in the public domain, the platform encourages innovation and accelerates the development of multilingual digital applications.

The platform supports over 800 government websites, enabling citizens across the country to interact with public services in their native languages. It currently processes more than 15 million AI inferences every day, demonstrating its large-scale operational capability.

BHASHINI supports 36 Indian text languages, 23 Indian voice languages, and 35 international languages, making it one of the world's largest multilingual AI ecosystems. This extensive language coverage significantly enhances accessibility and inclusivity for India's linguistically diverse population.

Major Functions of DIBD

The Digital India BHASHINI Division promotes the development of open-source language technologies, encouraging collaborative innovation among academia, industry, start-ups, and government agencies. It supports cutting-edge research in multilingual AI, facilitates the creation of high-quality language datasets, and provides opportunities for start-ups to develop language-based digital solutions.

The division also builds partnerships with educational institutions, research organizations, and international agencies to strengthen India's capabilities in language technology and Digital Public Infrastructure. These collaborations help position India as a global leader in multilingual AI and inclusive digital innovation.

Significance of the BHASHINI Initiative

BHASHINI plays a pivotal role in achieving the objectives of the Digital India Programme by ensuring that language is no longer a barrier to accessing digital services. It promotes digital inclusion by enabling citizens from diverse linguistic backgrounds to participate fully in India's digital economy and governance ecosystem.

The initiative strengthens Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) by integrating multilingual capabilities into government platforms, thereby improving the accessibility, efficiency, and transparency of public service delivery.

By supporting AI research, innovation, start-up development, and cross-border collaborations, BHASHINI contributes to India's vision of becoming a global leader in Artificial Intelligence, language technology, and digital public goods. It also reinforces the country's commitment to building an inclusive, technology-driven society where every citizen can benefit from digital transformation irrespective of the language they speak.

Recently, the Prime Minister of India chaired a meeting of the Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister (EAC-PM) to deliberate on key economic issues and provide strategic inputs for sustaining India's growth trajectory and achieving the vision of Viksit Bharat.

About the Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister (EAC-PM)

The Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister (EAC-PM) is an independent advisory body constituted by the Government of India to provide expert advice on economic and related policy matters directly to the Prime Minister. It serves as a high-level think tank comprising distinguished economists and subject experts who assist the government in formulating evidence-based economic policies.

The Council functions independently and offers objective recommendations on issues affecting the Indian economy. Its recommendations are advisory in nature and are not legally binding on the Government. Nevertheless, its analyses and policy suggestions play an important role in shaping economic decision-making and long-term developmental strategies.

Apart from advising the government, the EAC-PM also contributes to promoting public awareness and understanding of economic issues through research publications, working papers, policy reports, and analytical studies.

Objectives and Terms of Reference

The primary objective of the EAC-PM is to provide independent, evidence-based economic advice to the Prime Minister on matters of national importance. It examines both short-term macroeconomic developments and long-term structural challenges affecting India's economy.

The Council analyses economic as well as other related issues referred to it by the Prime Minister and submits recommendations for appropriate policy responses. It also studies important macroeconomic trends, including economic growth, inflation, employment, fiscal policy, external sector developments, financial stability, productivity, and structural reforms.

The EAC-PM is empowered to undertake studies suo motu (on its own initiative) whenever it considers an issue to be of national importance. It may also examine matters referred by the Prime Minister or other authorities and undertake any additional assignments entrusted to it from time to time.

Composition

The Economic Advisory Council is headed by a Chairperson and consists of several eminent economists, policy experts, and professionals with expertise in diverse areas of economics and public policy.

There is no fixed statutory provision prescribing the exact number of members. The composition is determined by the Government depending on contemporary policy requirements and the expertise needed for addressing emerging economic challenges.

The Council is supported by a dedicated team of officials, economists, researchers, and administrative staff, who assist in research, policy analysis, data evaluation, and preparation of reports.

Administrative Support

Although the EAC-PM functions independently in its advisory role, NITI Aayog serves as its nodal agency for administrative, financial, logistical, planning, and budgeting support. This institutional arrangement enables the Council to function efficiently while maintaining operational independence in providing policy advice.

Functions of the EAC-PM

The Council continuously monitors the performance of the Indian economy and evaluates domestic as well as global economic developments that may influence India's macroeconomic stability.

It provides recommendations on issues such as economic growth, fiscal management, inflation control, investment climate, employment generation, industrial competitiveness, agricultural reforms, international trade, financial sector development, and sustainable economic development.

The EAC-PM also undertakes analytical research on emerging policy challenges and prepares reports that assist policymakers in designing long-term economic strategies. Through seminars, publications, and research papers, it enhances informed public discourse on important economic issues.

Significance of the EAC-PM

The Economic Advisory Council plays a crucial role in strengthening evidence-based policymaking by providing independent expert advice free from routine administrative constraints. It enables the Government to benefit from specialized economic expertise while responding to rapidly evolving domestic and global economic conditions.

Its recommendations help improve policy coordination, support macroeconomic stability, encourage structural reforms, and contribute to achieving the objectives of inclusive growth, economic resilience, and sustainable development. As India aspires to become a developed economy (Viksit Bharat) by 2047, the EAC-PM serves as an important institution for guiding long-term economic planning and policy formulation.

Recently, scientists at the Agharkar Research Institute (ARI), Pune discovered a new species of Foraminifera, which has been named Portatrochammina bharatensis. The discovery adds to India's marine biodiversity records and contributes to a better understanding of the evolution and ecology of these ancient microscopic organisms.

About Foraminifera

Foraminifera are single-celled marine protists that have existed in the world's oceans for more than 500 million years, making them one of the oldest surviving groups of marine organisms. Despite being microscopic, they are among the most abundant and ecologically significant organisms in marine ecosystems.

The name Foraminifera is derived from the Latin word "foramen," meaning "window" or "opening," referring to the numerous tiny pores present on their shells. These pores allow the organism to extend thread-like structures called pseudopodia, which are used for movement, feeding, and capturing prey.

Because their shells are exceptionally well preserved in marine sediments over geological time, Foraminifera are widely used by geologists and paleontologists to reconstruct Earth's climatic history, determine the age of sedimentary rocks, and explore petroleum-bearing formations.

Key Features of Foraminifera

Foraminifera are extremely small organisms, generally ranging between 50 and 500 micrometres in size, roughly comparable to the size of a grain of sand. Although microscopic, they display remarkable structural complexity.

They inhabit a wide variety of marine environments, including the open oceans, coastal waters, continental shelves, estuaries, and deep-sea floors. Based on their mode of life, they are broadly classified into planktonic foraminifera, which float freely in the water column, and benthic foraminifera, which live on or within the sea floor sediments.

Most Foraminifera possess protective shells known as "tests." Unlike many other organisms that secrete shells chemically, several species construct these intricate tests by collecting and cementing together tiny mineral grains, sand particles, shell fragments, and other materials available in their surroundings, a process known as agglutination.

Their bodies are highly flexible because they lack a rigid cell wall. Through the tiny openings in their shells, they extend pseudopodia (false feet), which enable them to crawl across the sea floor, capture food, attach to surfaces, and interact with their environment.

The shell architecture varies greatly among species. Some possess a single-chambered shell, while others develop multiple interconnected chambers arranged in spiral, coiled, or highly elaborate patterns, making them valuable indicators for taxonomic and evolutionary studies.

Food and Feeding Behaviour

Foraminifera are primarily heterotrophic organisms that feed on a wide range of microscopic organic matter. Their diet includes detritus deposited on the sea floor, bacteria, algae, diatoms, and tiny marine animals such as copepods. The extended pseudopodia trap food particles, which are then transported back into the cell for digestion.

Ecological Importance

Foraminifera play a crucial role in marine ecosystems by contributing to nutrient recycling and maintaining food-web dynamics. They participate in the decomposition of organic matter and serve as an important food source for several marine organisms.

Their calcium carbonate and agglutinated shells accumulate over millions of years to form a significant component of marine sediments, contributing to the long-term carbon cycle and ocean sediment formation.

Owing to their sensitivity to changes in temperature, salinity, oxygen levels, ocean acidity, and pollution, Foraminifera are widely regarded as excellent bioindicators for monitoring marine environmental health and the impacts of climate change.

Scientific Importance

Foraminifera are among the most valuable microfossils used in geology, oceanography, and paleoclimatology. Their fossilized shells help scientists reconstruct ancient climates, understand past oceanic conditions, trace evolutionary changes over millions of years, and estimate the geological age of sedimentary rocks.

They also play an indispensable role in petroleum and natural gas exploration, where their fossil assemblages are used to identify promising hydrocarbon-bearing sedimentary basins.

Significance of the Discovery

The discovery of Portatrochammina bharatensis highlights India's growing contribution to marine biodiversity research and expands the known diversity of Foraminifera. It enhances scientific understanding of marine ecosystems, strengthens taxonomic knowledge of microscopic life forms, and provides valuable baseline data for future studies on climate change, marine ecology, paleoceanography, and conservation of ocean biodiversity.