Duration: August 19-21
Purpose: This was the first official visit of Malaysian Prime Minister Dato Seri Anwar bin Ibrahim to India.

Key Highlights

• Upgrade to Comprehensive Strategic Partnership:
• The relationship between India and Malaysia was elevated to a Comprehensive Strategic Partnership, building on previous agreements from 2010 and 2015.
• Agreements and MoUs Signed:
• Multiple agreements were established covering various sectors including:
• Workers’ mobility
• Digital technology
• Culture
• Tourism
• Sports
• Education
• India committed to supporting Malaysia’s bid to join the BRICS grouping.
• Additional Rice Export:
• India agreed to allocate 200,000 metric tonnes of white rice to Malaysia, addressing the country's food import dependency.
• Addressing Bilateral Friction:
• Both leaders recognized past tensions, particularly concerning:
• The Citizenship Amendment Act
• The reorganization of Jammu and Kashmir
• The extradition of Zakir Naik
• While not directly addressing the extradition, discussions focused on broader security concerns, particularly extremism and radicalism.
• Agreement on Local Currency Trade:
• India and Malaysia will conduct trade transactions in their local currencies: Indian Rupees (INR) and Malaysian Ringgits (MYR).
• This decision follows a significant $5 billion investment from Malaysia to India.
• Focus on Expanding Economic Cooperation:
• Emphasis was placed on cooperation in emerging technologies such as:
• Semiconductors
• Fintech
• Artificial Intelligence (AI)
• Quantum computing
• The Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) will be reviewed to enhance economic ties.
• Digital and Startup Collaboration:
• Plans were set to establish a Digital Council and a Startup Alliance to promote cooperation in digital technologies.
• Efforts to connect India’s Unified Payments Interface (UPI) with Malaysia’s Paynet were discussed to enhance digital financial integration.
• People-to-People Ties:
• Agreements were made to simplify visa procedures and increase educational exchanges, including the allocation of 100 ITEC scholarships for Malaysian students in advanced courses like Cyber Security and AI.
• Cultural and Educational Initiatives:
• An Ayurveda Chair will be established at the University Tunku Abdul Rahman, while a Tiruvalluvar Chair will be set up at the University of Malaya.
• Malaysia’s participation in significant Indian cultural and historical events, such as the installation of the Sengol in the new Parliament House, was positively acknowledged.

India – Malaysia Bilateral Relationship: Overview

• Diplomatic Ties:
• India established diplomatic relations with the Federation of Malaya (now Malaysia) in 1957.
• Indian Diaspora:
• Malaysia is home to over 2.95 million people of Indian origin, making it the second-largest PIO community globally, after the US.

Economic & Commercial Relations

• Trade Partnership:
• Malaysia ranks as India’s 16th largest trading partner, while India is among the top ten trading partners for Malaysia.
• The Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA), effective since 2011, covers goods, services, and investment.
• Bilateral Trade:
• Bilateral trade reached approximately $19.89 billion in 2022-23:
• Exports from India: $7.15 billion
• Imports to India: $12.73 billion
• Major Exports from India:
• Mineral fuels and oils
• Aluminum and related products
• Meat and edible offal
• Iron and steel
• Copper and articles thereof
• Major Imports to India:
• Palm oil
• Mineral fuels and oils
• Electrical machinery and equipment
• Animal or vegetable fats and oils
• Investment Landscape:
• Malaysia is the 31st largest investor in India, with an FDI inflow of $1.18 billion from April 2000 to September 2023.
• Indian companies have invested in about 250 manufacturing projects, totaling over $2.62 billion.
• Trade between India and Malaysia can now be settled in Indian Rupees (INR), alongside other currencies.

Defense and Security

• Cooperation in Defense:
• Both countries participate in each other’s biennial defense exhibitions, LIMA and MILAN.
• India is involved in the Cooperative Mechanism on the Straits of Malacca and Singapore (SOMS), contributing to projects that enhance navigational safety and environmental protection.

Conclusion

The India-Malaysia bilateral relationship is robust, characterized by deep economic ties, significant cultural connections through the Indian diaspora, and collaborative efforts in defense and security. The recent agreements and strategic partnerships further solidify this relationship, paving the way for future cooperation.

The Collision Avoidance System (CAS) is an advanced technology designed to enhance safety in transportation, particularly in rail systems. In India, the implementation of Kavach, a homegrown CAS, has gained attention due to recent train accidents highlighting the need for better safety measures.

Key Features of CAS

• Real-Time Data: CAS systems rely on real-time information regarding the positions of vehicles, ensuring that trains can detect potential collisions with other trains or obstacles.
• Two Main Data Inputs:
• Location of Other Vehicles: Information about the locations of all nearby trains and obstacles.
• Vehicle's Own Location: The system determines its own position relative to these other vehicles.

Functionality

• Assisting Drivers: In scenarios where a train is operated by a human, CAS acts as an assistive technology, providing alerts and warnings to the driver to prevent accidents.
• Autonomous Operation: In fully automated trains, CAS can take control and maneuver the vehicle to avoid collisions, enhancing safety without human intervention.

Importance

• Enhancing Safety: The primary goal of CAS is to minimize the risk of collisions, thus protecting passengers, cargo, and railway infrastructure.
• Addressing Delays in Implementation: The recent focus on the slow rollout of Kavach emphasizes the need for timely implementation of safety technologies in the Indian Railways to prevent accidents.

Reasons Behind Railway Accidents

• Derailments:
• Responsible for approximately 70% of train crashes in India, according to a 2020 safety report. A Comptroller and Auditor General report noted that from 2018 to 2021, 7 in 10 railway accidents were due to derailments.
• Human Errors:
• Errors by railway staff due to fatigue, negligence, corruption, or disregard for safety procedures can lead to accidents. These errors often arise from inadequate training or stressful working conditions.
• Signalling Failures:
• Failures in the signalling system, caused by technical glitches, power outages, or human mistakes, can lead to dangerous situations where trains may collide or misroute.
• Unmanned Level Crossings (UMLCs):
• While many UMLCs have been removed, risks remain at manned level crossings (MLCs). Accidents can occur due to inadequate barriers or signals.
• Infrastructure Defects:
• Poorly maintained railway infrastructure, including tracks and bridges, contributes to accidents. Ageing assets, vandalism, sabotage, and natural disasters can exacerbate this issue. Overcapacity on certain routes increases congestion and risk.
• Safety and Information Flow Challenges:
• The "top-down" approach in safety management can create distrust between authorities and frontline staff, resulting in superficial compliance. This culture may obscure underlying safety issues, leading to accidents stemming from ignored warnings or unsafe practices.

Steps Taken by Railways to Reduce Accidents

• Sufficient Funding:
• Establishment of the Rashtriya Rail Sanraksha Kosh (RRSK), a safety fund with a corpus of Rs 1 lakh crore over five years for critical safety works, including track renewals and signalling projects. The capital expenditure allocation has increased significantly, with over Rs 2.5 lakh crore allocated for 2023-24 and again for 2024-25.
• Expansion of Railway Network:
• Efforts to extend the rail network and augment capacity on congested routes. The National Rail Plan 2030 aims to identify new freight and high-speed rail corridors and improve the average speed of trains.
• LHB Design Coaches:
• Introduction of lighter and safer coaches based on German technology, featuring anti-climbing designs, fire-retardant materials, and improved durability.
• Modern Track Structure:
• Implementation of stronger, more durable track systems, including prestressed concrete sleepers and higher tensile strength rails.
• Technological Upgradation:
• Adoption of modern technologies in coach and wagon design, including Modified Centre Buffer Couplers and Bogie Mounted Air Brake Systems. The installation of KAVACH, an Automatic Train Protection system, enhances safety by preventing collisions.
• Block Proving Axle Counter (BPAC):
• A train detection system that ensures safe railway traffic control by preventing two trains from being in the same block section simultaneously.

Electronic Interlocking (EI)

• Definition: EI employs computer-based systems and electronic equipment to control signals, points, and level-crossing gates.
• Advantage: Unlike traditional relay interlocking systems, EI uses software and electronic components, ensuring efficient management of interlocking logic.
• Functionality: EI synchronizes all components, facilitating smooth and uninterrupted train movements.
• Current Status: As of 2022, 2,888 stations in India were equipped with electronic interlocking, covering 45.5% of the Indian Railways network.

Kavach System

About:

• Launch: Introduced in 2020, Kavach is a cab signaling train control system designed with anti-collision features.
• Development: Created by the Research Design and Standards Organisation (RDSO) in collaboration with three Indian vendors.
• Standards: It is recognized as the National Automatic Train Protection (ATP) System and adheres to Safety Integrity Level-4 (SIL-4) standards.
• Function: Acts as a vigilant system that alerts the loco pilot of approaching 'red signals' and can apply automatic brakes to prevent overshooting.

Components:

• RFID Technology: Integrated into the tracks to facilitate automatic identification and information reading without physical contact.
• Driver’s Cabin Equipment: Includes RFID readers, a computer, and brake interface equipment to ensure proper communication and safety measures.
• Radio Infrastructure: Involves towers and modems installed at railway stations for centralized monitoring.

Current Status:

• Network Coverage: Kavach aims to secure India's railway network of over 68,000 km, but only 1,500 km are currently equipped with the system.
• Cost: Installation costs are ₹50 lakh per km for trackside components and ₹70 lakh per train.
• Future Goals: Plans to cover 6,000 km by 2025, including crucial routes like Delhi-Mumbai and Delhi-Howrah. Expected to increase installation capacity from 1,500 km to 5,000 km annually by 2026.
• Upgrades: Future enhancements include making the system compatible with 4G/5G technology.

Committees' Recommendations

• Kakodkar Committee (2012):
• Emphasis on adopting advanced technologies for track maintenance and inspection.
• Recommendations for enhancing human resource development and management.
• Bibek Debroy Committee (2014):
• Suggested separating the railway budget from the general budget.
• Advocated for outsourcing non-core activities.
• Recommended the creation of a Railway Infrastructure Authority of India.
• Vinod Rai Committee (2015):
• Proposed the establishment of an independent Railway Safety Authority with statutory powers.
• Recommended forming a Railway Accident Investigation Board for impartial inquiries.
• Suggested creating a separate Railway Infrastructure Company to manage railway assets.

Steps Needed to Enhance Safety in Indian Railways

• Creating a Statutory Railway Safety Authority:
• Establish a dedicated authority with the power to set safety standards, conduct audits, enforce accountability, and investigate accidents.
• Confidential Incident Reporting and Analysis System (CIRAS):
• Implement a system similar to the UK's CIRAS to promote a culture of safety, focusing on correction rather than punishment.
• Enhance Coordination and Communication:
• Improve communication among various railway entities, including the railway board, zonal railways, divisions, and research organizations.
• Invest More in Safety-Related Works:
• Increase funding for critical safety infrastructure such as track renewals, bridge repairs, and signaling upgrades.
• Train Employees to Minimize Human Errors:
• Provide ongoing training for railway staff on new technologies, safety protocols, and operational procedures.
• Improve Infrastructure:
• Conduct regular checks on railway tracks, especially for seasonal expansions and contractions, requiring structural evaluations every three months.
• Adopt Advanced Technologies:
• Install anti-collision devices like Kavach, Train Collision Avoidance System (TCAS), Train Protection Warning System (TPWS), and Automatic Train Control (ATC) across the network.
• Emulate Successful Automatic Train Protection Systems:
• Learn from successful systems in other regions, such as the robust protections in Mumbai's suburban rail system.
• Introduce Performance-Linked Incentives:
• Reward railway staff based on performance and adherence to safety rules to foster a culture of accountability.
• Ensure Accountability:
• Present an annual performance report of the Railways to Parliament, similar to the Economic Survey, focusing on internal audits and safety performance.
• Evaluate Indian Railways Management Service (IRMS):
• Assess the impact of the IRMS scheme on safety and consider revisions to enhance specialization and commitment.

Learning From Global Best Practices

• United Kingdom:
• The Train Protection and Warning System (TPWS) automatically stops trains that pass danger signals or exceed speed limits, contributing to low accident rates.
• Japan:
• Japan's Shinkansen trains have maintained a perfect safety record due to advanced systems like Automatic Train Control (ATC) and earthquake warning systems.

By implementing these measures and learning from international practices, Indian Railways can significantly enhance safety and reliability across its network.

Recent Judgment

In a significant ruling (State of Punjab v. Davinder Singh), the Supreme Court of India, through a seven-judge bench, has allowed states to create sub-classifications within Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) categories. This decision aims to provide better protections and targeted benefits to the most backward communities within these categories via fixed sub-quotas.

Background Context

• Historical Efforts:
• States have long sought to give wider protection to the most underrepresented communities within the SC and ST categories, advocating for separate quotas within existing reservations (15% for SCs and 7.5% for STs).
• For example, in 1975, the Punjab government prioritized the Balmiki and Mazhabi Sikh communities in SC reservations, which led to legal challenges and public outrage.
• Previous Legal Precedents:
• E.V. Chinnaiah v. State of Andhra Pradesh (2004):
• The Supreme Court struck down the Andhra Pradesh Scheduled Castes (Rationalization of Reservations) Act, 2000, arguing that sub-classification violated Article 14 (right to equality) and Article 341 of the Constitution. It held that the SC list must be considered a single, homogeneous group due to the shared historical discrimination they face.
• Dr. Kishan Pal v. State of Punjab (2006):
• Following the E.V. Chinnaiah judgment, the Punjab and Haryana High Court invalidated the 1975 notification favoring certain SC communities. A new law passed in 2006 was also declared unconstitutional.
• Davinder Singh v. State of Punjab (2014):
• This case questioned the validity of the E.V. Chinnaiah ruling. The bench recognized disparities within SCs and STs, prompting the formation of a larger seven-judge bench for a conclusive ruling.

Implications of the Ruling

• Sub-Classifications: The Supreme Court’s ruling allows states to categorize and create sub-quotas for specific communities within the broader SC and ST classifications, recognizing the variations in socio-economic status and educational backwardness among them.
• Policy Implementation: States can now design policies that target the needs of the most disadvantaged groups within SC and ST categories, potentially improving access to education and employment opportunities for these communities.
• Legal Framework: This ruling may lead to revisions in state-level legislation and practices concerning reservation policies, allowing for a more nuanced approach to affirmative action

Key Issues Addressed by the Supreme Court and Final Verdict

The Supreme Court's landmark decision (State of Punjab v. Davinder Singh) marks a significant shift in India's reservation policy by permitting states to create sub-classifications within Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST). This 6-1 ruling overturns the previous E.V. Chinnaiah (2004) decision, which maintained that SC/STs form a homogenous group.

1. Treatment of Castes in the SC List

• Legal Fiction of SCs: The Court stated that the Presidential list of SCs represents a "legal fiction" that cannot ignore the internal differences among the SCs. It acknowledged the existence of a "heterogeneous group" of castes with varying degrees of backwardness.
• Internal Differences: Inclusion in the President’s List does not mean SCs are uniform; there are significant disparities among different communities.

2. Permissibility of Sub-Classification

• Socio-Economic Disparities: The Court recognized that some castes within the SC category are more disadvantaged than others, justifying sub-classification.
• Article 14 Compliance: The Court ruled that sub-classification does not violate Article 14, as it aims to ensure that laws apply to those "similarly situated." This promotes substantive equality over formal equality, addressing inherent differences to achieve fairness.
• Empowerment Under Articles 15(4) and 16(4): States have the authority to identify varying degrees of social backwardness and provide special provisions, including reservations.

3. Yardstick for Sub-Classification

• Data-Driven Decisions: Sub-classification requires "quantifiable and demonstrable data" to highlight levels of backwardness. States must provide empirical evidence and a reasonable rationale for classification, which can be tested in court.
• Exclusion of 100% Reservations: States cannot earmark 100% of reservations for any sub-class to the exclusion of others listed under the Presidential notification.

4. Application of the 'Creamy Layer' Principle

• Exclusion of the Creamy Layer: Justice Gavai, supported by three other judges, advocated for excluding the "creamy layer" among SCs and STs from reservation benefits. Currently, this principle applies only to Other Backward Classes (OBCs).
• Potential Variance in Criteria: The criteria for defining the creamy layer for SCs/STs may differ from those for OBCs, with past judgments suggesting that those from the creamy layer should not benefit from affirmative action.

Dissenting Opinion

• Justice Bela Trivedi's Dissent: Justice Trivedi contended that states lack the authority to alter the Presidential list under Article 341, emphasizing that changes should come from Parliament. She warned that sub-classifications could politicize and undermine the constitutional intent of affirmative action.

Committee for Sub-Categorization

• Formation of a Committee: In January 2024, the Union government established a five-member committee led by Cabinet Secretary Rajiv Gauba to assess fair distribution of benefits for sub-categorization of SCs.
• OBC Sub-Categorization: The Justice G. Rohini-led Commission for OBC sub-categorization submitted its report to the Central Government in August 2023.

Potential Implications of Sub-Categorization

Positive Implications

• Targeted Benefits:
• Sub-categorization ensures that reservation benefits reach those who need them most, addressing specific challenges faced by the most disadvantaged groups and promoting social and economic mobility.
• Enhanced Representation:
• It can lead to better representation of historically marginalized communities in education and employment, fostering a more inclusive and equitable society.
• Better Policy Formulation and Implementation:
• The requirement for detailed data collection on sub-castes can inform more effective and tailored policies, ensuring resources are allocated where they are needed most.
• Strengthened Social Cohesion:
• By promoting a fairer distribution of benefits, sub-categorization can enhance feelings of justice and inclusion among SC/ST communities and foster harmony in the broader society.

Negative Implications

• Division Within SC Communities:
• Sub-categorization may create conflicts and competition for resources among different subgroups, potentially undermining the solidarity and unity that have historically characterized SC communities.
• Administrative Complexity:
• Identifying eligible subgroups and collecting data can introduce significant bureaucratic challenges, leading to delays in implementation and potential inefficiencies.
• Political Implications:
• The political sensitivity surrounding the issue may lead to protests and resistance from various stakeholders, complicating the implementation process.
• Data Availability and Accuracy:
• Collecting and analyzing accurate data on the socio-economic and educational status of different subgroups can be challenging, particularly in regions with limited infrastructure and resources.
• Judicial Scrutiny:
• Policies related to sub-categorization may face legal challenges, as altering the existing reservation framework could result in prolonged court battles and uncertainty regarding their implementation.

Constitutional Provisions Supporting Weaker Sections

The Indian Constitution contains several provisions aimed at promoting the welfare and advancement of weaker sections, particularly Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs).

• Article 15(4): Allows the state to make special provisions for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens, including SCs and STs.
• Article 16(4A): Provides for reservation in promotions for SCs and STs in public services.
• Article 17: Abolishes untouchability, prohibiting discrimination based on caste.
• Article 46: Mandates the state to promote the educational and economic interests of weaker sections, particularly SCs and STs, and to protect them from social injustice and exploitation.
• Article 330 and Article 332: Ensure reservation of seats for SCs and STs in the House of the People and state legislative assemblies.
• Article 335: Requires that the claims of SCs and STs be considered in appointments to services and posts while maintaining administrative efficiency.
• Article 338: Establishes the National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC) and Scheduled Tribes (NCST) to monitor and evaluate the implementation of policies for these communities.
• Part IX and Part IXA: Provide for the reservation of seats for SCs and STs in local bodies, ensuring their representation in grassroots governance.

Presidential List

• Central List: The list of SCs and STs is notified by the President under Articles 341 and 342 of the Constitution.
• Parliamentary Consent: Any addition or exclusion from this list requires the consent of Parliament; states cannot unilaterally alter it.
• Variations Across States: The designation of a caste as SC in one state may not apply in another. This state-wise variation helps mitigate disputes regarding reservations.
• Exclusions: Certain regions, such as Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, and Lakshadweep, do not have specific communities listed as SCs.

Prominent Weaker Communities by State

• Maharashtra: Mahar, Matang, Gond, Bhil, Dhule
• Rajasthan: Meghwal, Bairwa, Jatav, Meena, Bhil
• Odisha: Khond, Santal, Gond, Pan, Dom, Dhoba, Ganda, Kandra, Bauri
• Chhattisgarh: Gond, Kawar/Kanwar, Oraon, Bairwa, Raidas
• Madhya Pradesh: Balai, Bhil, Gond
• West Bengal: Rajbanshi, Matua, Bagdi
• Gujarat: Vankar, Rohit, Bhil, Halpati
• Assam: Bodo, Karbi
• Tripura: Debbarma community, Das, Badyakar, Shabdakar, Sarkar
• Uttarakhand: Harijan, Balmiki, Jaunsari, Tharu

Way Forward

The sub-categorization of Scheduled Castes (SCs) aims to address internal inequalities and empower the most disadvantaged groups. However, it is essential to navigate the associated challenges thoughtfully to ensure that the intended benefits are realized without exacerbating existing disparities.

• Inclusive Policy Development:
• Engage with a wide range of stakeholders, including community leaders, social scientists, and policymakers, to ensure that the sub-categorization process is inclusive and considers the unique needs of different groups within the SC community.
• Data Collection and Research:
• Invest in comprehensive data collection to assess the socio-economic conditions of various subgroups. This will help in understanding their specific challenges and tailoring policies effectively.
• Monitoring and Evaluation:
• Establish robust mechanisms for monitoring and evaluating the impact of sub-categorization policies. Regular assessments can help identify unintended consequences and areas for improvement.
• Addressing Administrative Challenges:
• Simplify administrative processes to reduce bureaucratic delays. Implement technology-driven solutions for data collection and resource allocation to improve efficiency.
• Fostering Unity:
• Promote initiatives that encourage solidarity among different subgroups within the SC community. This can help mitigate potential conflicts and competition for resources.
• Legal Framework:
• Develop a clear legal framework to address potential challenges related to sub-categorization. Ensuring that policies align with constitutional provisions will be vital for their sustainability.
• Public Awareness Campaigns:
• Launch campaigns to educate the public about the purpose and benefits of sub-categorization. Building a supportive environment can reduce resistance and promote understanding.
• Periodic Reviews:
• As suggested in the judgment, consider periodic reviews of the reservation policy to assess its relevance and effectiveness. This can help move towards a more equitable society while gradually reducing reliance on caste-based reservations.
• Promoting a Casteless Society:
• While addressing immediate disparities, also focus on long-term goals of social integration and reducing caste-based identities. Encourage dialogue and initiatives that promote equality beyond reservations.

The World Bank's report highlights the profound effects of climate change on education, emphasizing how extreme weather events disrupt schooling, lead to learning losses, and increase dropout rates.

Key Findings

• Neglect of Education in Climate Policy:
• Education has received minimal attention in climate policies. In 2020, it constituted less than 1.3% of climate assistance and was referenced in fewer than one in three Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) plans.
• Impact of School Closures:
• Between 2005 and 2024, schools were closed during at least 75% of extreme weather events, affecting over 5 million people.
• Over 99% of children globally are exposed to at least one major climate-related hazard.
• Effects of Rising Temperatures:
• An increase of just 1°C in outdoor temperature on exam days can significantly reduce test scores. For instance, students in the hottest 10% of Brazilian municipalities experienced a loss of about 1% of learning per year due to heat exposure.
• Food Insecurity and Economic Fragility:
• Climate change could put up to 170 million people at risk of hunger by 2080, jeopardizing school enrollment and student learning.
• Disproportionate Effects on Girls:
• Climate-related events can prevent at least 4 million girls in low- and lower-middle-income countries from completing their education.

Approaches to Adapt Education Systems

• Education Management for Climate Resilience:
• Invest in early warning systems. For example, the InaRISK mobile app in Indonesia enhances disaster preparedness knowledge among students and staff.
• Climate-Resilient School Infrastructure:
• Strengthen existing school buildings to withstand climate impacts. Rwanda's project includes equipping schools with retaining walls to prevent flood-related landslides.
• Manage classroom temperatures through initiatives like Kenya's Green Economy Strategy, which promotes bioclimatic designs for enhanced comfort.
• Ensuring Learning Continuity During Climate Shocks:
• Maintain school operations as much as possible and bolster remote learning mechanisms. For example, Ghana's back-to-school campaign led to nearly 100% re-enrollment after COVID-19 disruptions.

Conclusion

The World Bank's report underscores the urgent need to integrate education into climate policy and enhance the resilience of educational systems. By addressing these challenges, we can safeguard learning opportunities and promote sustainable development in the face of climate change.