Researchers from Sichuan University and the University of British Columbia discovered that Botrytis cinerea cannot be cloned due to its unique genetic setup.Unlike many organisms, no single nucleus in this fungus contains a full set of chromosomes. Instead, the chromosomes are distributed across multiple nuclei, with each nucleus carrying only a subset.
About Botrytis cinerea
Type: Widespread necrotrophic fungal pathogen (kills host tissue for nutrients).
Nutrient Acquisition: Initially depends on dead or damaged plant tissues (e.g., old flower petals) to gain nutrients before penetrating healthy tissue.
Infection Process: Once established, it spreads to healthy tissue, causing brownish rot.
Common Targets: Blossoms, fruit, buds, stems, leaves, roots, bulbs, and tubers—especially vulnerable are fragile, wounded, or aging parts.
Grapes & Noble Rot: Infects grapes by penetrating the skin, causing water loss through evaporation, resulting in shriveled berries with concentrated sugars and flavors, key to botrytized wine production.
Environmental Conditions for Infection: Requires warm temperatures, high humidity, and prolonged wetness.
Chemical Activity: Produces organic acids like oxalic acid that acidify the local environment, aiding infection.
Fungi are a kingdom of eukaryotic organisms (cells have a nucleus and organelles).
They include mushrooms, molds, yeasts, and more.
Unlike plants, fungi do not perform photosynthesis; they absorb nutrients from organic matter.
Cell Wall Composition: Made of chitin (same material as insect exoskeletons), not cellulose like plants.
Nutrition: Absorptive heterotrophs — they secrete enzymes to break down organic material and then absorb nutrients.
Reproduction: Can reproduce both sexually and asexually.
Sexual spores: e.g., ascospores (in sac fungi), basidiospores (in club fungi).
Asexual spores: e.g., conidia, sporangiospores.
Structure: Often composed of thread-like filaments called hyphae which form a network called mycelium.
Decomposers: Break down dead organic material, recycling nutrients in ecosystems.
Symbiosis: Form important relationships such as:
Mycorrhizae with plant roots, enhancing nutrient uptake.
Lichens, symbiotic associations with algae or cyanobacteria.
Food Industry: Yeasts used in bread, beer, and wine production.
Medicine: Source of antibiotics like penicillin (from Penicillium species).
Agriculture: Some fungi are plant pathogens causing diseases; others improve soil health.
Better understanding of Botrytis cinerea genetics may help develop targeted disease control strategies.
Insights into its infection process can improve crop protection and grape/wine quality.
This knowledge informs fungal biology broadly, aiding in management of related plant pathogens.
India has imposed immediate restrictions on the import of jute and allied fibre products from Bangladesh.
These apply at all Indian land and seaports except Nhava Sheva in Maharashtra.
The restrictions do not apply to Bangladeshi exports destined for Nepal and Bhutan, but re-export from these countries into India is prohibited.
Bangladesh currently enjoys duty-free access to the Indian market under the South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) agreement.
The Indian jute industry has raised concerns about:
Dumped and subsidised imports from Bangladesh (jute yarn, fibre, fabrics, bags).
Unfair trade practices like mislabelling, misuse of exemptions, and routing through firms exempt from anti-dumping duties (ADD).
Previous anti-dumping duties (ADD) imposed by India have failed to reduce import volumes significantly.
India has repeatedly raised concerns with Bangladesh but reports only nominal adjustments have been made.
Jute is a critical industry in India, employing around 400,000 workers and supporting farmers in states like West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tripura, and Meghalaya.
Helps protect domestic jute farmers and mill workers from unfair competition.
Aims to stop the underutilization of Indian jute mills and reduce unemployment caused by cheap imports.
Reinforces India’s push for self-reliance and economic protection in rural sectors.
Limits Bangladeshi exporters’ access to key Indian markets via land routes, pressuring exporters to shift to costlier seaports like Nhava Sheva.
May affect Bangladesh’s export volumes and trade revenues, especially for small-scale jute exporters relying on land routes.
Restrictions do not affect Bangladesh’s exports to Nepal and Bhutan.
However, re-export of Bangladeshi jute products from Nepal and Bhutan into India is banned, closing potential loopholes.
The move may strain bilateral trade ties and affect regional economic integration under South Asian trade agreements.
India Bangladesh relations
Historical Context: The relationship is rooted in a shared history, with India playing a pivotal role in Bangladesh's 1971 Liberation War. India’s support for Bangladesh’s independence against Pakistan has been a defining moment in bilateral ties
In recent years, relations have improved significantly. The 2015 Land Boundary Agreement (LBA) resolved long-standing border issues, and both countries have moved towards deeper cooperation in regional and global forums
Bilateral Trade:
India is Bangladesh’s largest trade partner in South Asia, and Bangladesh is India’s second-largest trade partner in Asia after China. The total trade volume of USD 12.9 billion in FY 2023-24 reflects the strong commercial relationship.
Exports from India to Bangladesh include key items like cotton, petroleum products, engineering goods, and chemicals. These sectors are crucial for both countries as Bangladesh’s textile industry relies on Indian cotton, and energy products are essential for Bangladesh’s growing energy needs.
Imports from Bangladesh to India primarily include textiles, apparel, jute products, and aerospace parts. Bangladesh’s textiles and jute products hold great value in global markets, and India is a key market for these goods.
Energy Cooperation:
The India-Bangladesh Friendship Pipeline (IBFPL) is a monumental development in cross-border energy cooperation. It marks the first energy pipeline connecting the two countries, primarily focused on transporting High-Speed Diesel (HSD) to Bangladesh. The pipeline's capacity of 1 Million Metric Ton Per Annum (MMTPA) plays a pivotal role in supporting Bangladesh’s growing energy demands, particularly in the transportation sector.
Maitree Super Thermal Power Project: This joint venture between National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) and Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB) has made significant strides in enhancing Bangladesh's power generation capacity. The power plant now feeds electricity into the Bangladesh grid, demonstrating the depth of India’s cooperation with Bangladesh in the energy sector.
Teesta River: The Teesta water-sharing issue has been a longstanding point of tension. Bangladesh depends heavily on the Teesta for irrigation, but disputes over the fair distribution of water have created friction.
Ganges Water Treaty: The 1996 Ganges Water Treaty between India and Bangladesh has been a success and a model of cooperation. It regulates the sharing of the river’s waters during the dry season, providing equitable distribution between the two countries.
Other Rivers: India and Bangladesh share about 54 transboundary rivers, and managing their water resources continues to be an ongoing dialogue between the two countries.
Joint Military Exercises:
Exercise Sampriti (Army): This is a series of joint military training exercises between the Indian and Bangladeshi armies aimed at enhancing interoperability and understanding between the two armed forces. It focuses on counter-terrorism operations, peacekeeping missions, and humanitarian assistance.
Exercise Bongosagar (Navy): A bilateral naval exercise aimed at strengthening maritime security and improving cooperation between the two navies. This includes joint drills, maritime patrols, and exchange of expertise in countering piracy, maritime terrorism, and other naval challenges.
Coordinated Patrol (CORPAT) (Navy): India and Bangladesh conduct regular Coordinated Patrols in the Bay of Bengal to secure the maritime borders and enhance cooperation on maritime security, particularly in preventing illegal activities like human trafficking, drug smuggling, and piracy.
Connectivity Infrastructure Projects:
Akhaura-Agartala Rail Link: This cross-border rail project aims to improve transportation between the two countries, facilitating the movement of goods and passengers.
Khulna-Mongla Port Rail Line: This project is crucial for improving trade flow through the Mongla Port in Bangladesh, linking it to India via the rail network.
Maitri Setu: A bridge over the Feni River, linking India’s Tripura state with Bangladesh, provides better connectivity and trade routes for both countries, reducing transportation costs and improving trade efficiency.
Regional Cooperation:
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC): India and Bangladesh have been key players in SAARC, where they collaborate on issues such as regional integration, poverty alleviation, and combating terrorism.
BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation): Both countries are vital members of this regional organization, which focuses on promoting economic cooperation and regional integration in sectors like trade, energy, transportation, and environmental sustainability.
Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA): India and Bangladesh cooperate in the Indian Ocean Rim Association to promote peace, security, and cooperation across the Indian Ocean region, which is vital for both countries' economic interests, particularly in trade and maritime security.
Overreliance on Sheikh Hasina: India’s close alignment with Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina and the Awami League has led to limited engagement with other political stakeholders, including the opposition (BNP) and civil society.
Post-Hasina Uncertainty: India lacks institutional depth in its outreach beyond Hasina’s government, raising concerns about a strategic vacuum in a post-Hasina political landscape.
Perceptions of Interference: India’s past decisions (e.g., hosting Sheikh Hasina during exile) have been interpreted by some in Bangladesh as interference in domestic affairs, fueling distrust among political factions.
Strategic Engagement: Bangladesh is an active participant in China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and is receiving massive investments in:
Infrastructure: Ports (e.g., Payra), energy grids, roads, and telecom.
Water Management: China’s involvement in the Teesta River Restoration Project, long a sensitive India-Bangladesh issue, signals growing influence.
Geopolitical Implication: This increasing Chinese footprint in Bangladesh’s strategic sectors is viewed by India as a challenge to its traditional influence, creating a new layer of competition in South Asia.
Illegal Immigration: Long-standing concerns in India’s northeastern states over undocumented migration from Bangladesh, often blamed for:
Altering local demographics
Fueling political and ethnic tensions
Rohingya Refugee Crisis: India remains cautious about large-scale migration of Rohingya Muslims from Bangladesh, which adds pressure on border management and security concerns.
Insurgency & Trafficking:
Cross-border movement of insurgent groups (e.g., ULFA camps) remains a concern.
Persistent issues of drug trafficking, arms smuggling, and human trafficking across porous borders.
Public Perception: Despite strong government-to-government ties, there’s growing mistrust at the societal level:
Accusations of India’s political interference
Water-sharing disputes (especially Teesta)
GPS interference refers to deliberate or unintentional disruption of Global Positioning System (GPS) signals, which are crucial for navigation in aircraft, ships, and ground transport systems. It has become a growing cybersecurity and safety challenge, especially in geopolitically sensitive or congested regions.
Definition: The use of devices that emit strong radio signals on GPS frequencies to overpower legitimate satellite signals.
Effect: GPS receivers are blinded and unable to determine location or time.
Result: Loss of navigation, automatic tracking, or timing data.
Common Uses: Military disruption, smuggling, or blocking surveillance; increasingly found in conflict zones and near sensitive borders.
Definition: Sending false GPS signals to mislead receivers into calculating incorrect position or time.
Effect: Aircraft, ships, or vehicles can be tricked into navigating off-course, believing the data is accurate.
Result: Potential for dangerous misrouting, vessel collisions, or even hijacking-style cyberattacks.
Example: A ship may be made to believe it's far from shore while it's actually approaching shallow waters.
Air India Express (Delhi–Jammu): Flight was forced to return to Delhi after encountering GPS interference, likely jamming or spoofing.
Strait of Hormuz: Two oil tankers collided at the narrow maritime chokepoint earlier this month, reportedly due to navigation failure caused by GPS spoofing.
Port of Jeddah (May): A container ship ran aground, disrupting port operations. Investigation pointed to signal distortion or interference.
Geopolitical Tensions: Areas like the Middle East, South China Sea, and Eastern Europe are hotspots for jamming/spoofing due to military rivalries.
Availability of Technology: GPS jammers and spoofers are increasingly cheap and accessible on the black market.
Lack of Regulation: Many regions lack strong international enforcement or anti-jamming technology requirements.
Aviation Risk: Aircraft may miscalculate position, risking collision with terrain or other aircraft.
Maritime Risk: Ships can be misled into groundings or collisions, causing port disruption and shipping delays.
Cascading Failures: Critical infrastructure like air traffic control, port operations, and vessel traffic systems (VTS) can face systemic breakdowns.
Land-based Transport: Spoofing could immobilize road transport or create traffic gridlocks during emergencies or conflict.
Multi-GNSS Receivers: Use of alternative satellite systems like GLONASS (Russia), Galileo (EU), and BeiDou (China) can reduce reliance on GPS alone.
Anti-Jamming Antennas: Modern receivers are being equipped with directional antennas and filtering systems to reject jamming signals.
Inertial Navigation Systems (INS): Aircraft and ships may use INS to navigate without GPS for short periods.
International Coordination: ICAO and IMO are pushing for global monitoring systems and shared threat databases.
NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation) is India’s indigenous satellite-based navigation system developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
Provides accurate position and timing services across India and up to 1,500 km beyond its borders.
Kargil War (1999):
The US denied India access to GPS data critical for tracking enemy positions.
Missile Test Failures (2009 & 2012):
India's BrahMos missiles missed targets after the US withdrew GPS access without notice.These incidents exposed India’s vulnerability due to dependence on foreign GPS systems.
Sovereign Control: India no longer depends on foreign systems for defence, disaster response, or critical infrastructure.
Reliable Military Application: Successfully deployed in military operations like Operation Sindhoor.
Secure Communication: Less susceptible to jamming or spoofing compared to open GPS.
Dual-Use System: Offers military-grade encrypted signals and civilian services.
GPS interference — through jamming or spoofing — is no longer just a military concern. It poses real-world risks to commercial aviation, shipping, and logistics, with growing instances of flights rerouted, ships misnavigated, and accidents caused. As the digital world and real world converge, protecting navigation systems is now a critical security priority.
India is revising its civil nuclear laws—the Atomic Energy Act (AEA), 1962 and the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (CLNDA), 2010—to:
Attract private and foreign investment
Accelerate clean energy deployment
Advance technological innovation (especially Small Modular Reactors, or SMRs)
Strengthen energy security and meet net-zero goals by 2070
Centralizes all nuclear operations under the government, excluding private and foreign players
Prohibits private reactor ownership and export of nuclear material/technology
Limits collaborative R&D and access to modern reactor designs
Section 17(b) allows operators to sue suppliers for nuclear accidents
International firms see it as an open-ended liability risk
Discourages foreign partnerships, technology imports, and insurance backing
Limiting Supplier Liability: Under draft amendments, Section 17(b) will be restructured to cap supplier liability to the contract value, with clear time limits—bringing it in line with global standards and reducing open-ended risk
Clarifying 'Supplier' Definition: The definition will be narrowed to protect smaller equipment makers from blanket liability unless explicitly mentioned in contracts
Goal: Attract U.S., French, and Japanese firms like GE-Hitachi and Westinghouse that are currently staying away due to unfettered legal exposure
Opening the Market: Private Indian firms—and in future likely foreign firms—will be allowed to build, own, and operate nuclear plants, ending the exclusive state monopoly
Foreign Equity: The potential for minority foreign stakes (up to ~49%) is being explored, enabling firms like Westinghouse, EDF, and Rosatom to participate .
3. Policy Support
₹20,000 crore allocated in Union Budget 2025
Launch of “Nuclear Energy Mission for Viksit Bharat”
Focus on innovation, coordination, and SMR development
Why This Matters
Unlocking Investment & Technology
Caps and clarity in liability laws will revive stalled deals (e.g., EDF’s Jaitapur, Westinghouse’s Kovvada) and attract global nuclear tech leaders
Boosting Nuclear Capacity
These reforms support India’s ambition to grow from ~8 GW today to 100 GW by 2047, realizing its clean energy goals
SMRs & R&D Momentum
The budget includes ₹20,000 crore for Small Modular Reactors, targeting 5 indigenous units by 2033, with U.S. firms already cleared for tech transfers (e.g., Holtec)
Trade & Strategic Leverage
Aligning with the Convention on Supplementary Compensation and incorporating U.S., French, and Japanese partners is seen as a keystone in wider trade negotiations
Unlimited Exposure
Unlike international norms that limit liability to the plant operator, India’s Section 17(b) permits recourse even for latent defects or “sub-standard services”
Foreign vendors like Westinghouse (U.S.) and Framatome (France) have repeatedly flagged this clause as a deal-breaker due to its unbounded liability
Broad Definition of “Supplier”
India’s CLNDA doesn’t distinguish between major contractors and small sub-vendors This means even minor equipment suppliers, such as Indian manufacturers, could be held liable—creating widespread industry apprehension
Legal Ambiguity with Section 46
This section allows additional civil claims under tort law beyond the CLNDA framework. Suppliers thus face potential unlimited civil liability, even if operators’ liability is capped
The proposed loosening of Section 17(b) in the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (CLNDA) aims to limit vendor liability for nuclear damage.
Critics, including civil society and watchdogs, fear this might lead to:
Reduced responsibility for equipment suppliers, especially foreign firms.
Potential risk to communities if defective parts or malpractices cause nuclear accidents.
Historical precedents like Fukushima remind the world of catastrophic fallout when accountability is unclear.
The trade-off here is between investor comfort and public safety—a delicate balance that critics feel might tilt too far towards protecting businesses at the expense of citizens.
Unlike major infrastructure projects, the nuclear amendments have lacked wide public consultation.
Key stakeholders—affected communities, scientific experts, and environmental groups—argue for:
A more transparent parliamentary process.
Inclusion of civil society in debates and decision-making.
Comprehensive scientific risk assessments shared publicly.
Without such openness, reforms risk eroding public trust and invite skepticism about whether economic convenience is prioritized over safety.
Current and Future Capacity Goals:
India aims to raise its nuclear power capacity from the present 8,180 MW to 22,480 MW by 2031-32, and ultimately reach 100 GW by 2047.
Rising Energy Demand:
With India’s electricity demand projected to grow 4 to 5 times by 2047, nuclear energy is critical to meeting the base-load power demand alongside renewable sources like solar and wind.
Climate and Energy Targets:
India is committed to reducing its GDP emission intensity by 44% by 2030 (compared to 2005 levels).
It targets 50% of its installed power capacity to come from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030, including nuclear energy.
1st Stage: Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs)
Use natural uranium (U-238) fuel with heavy water (deuterium oxide) as coolant and moderator.
Currently operated by NPCIL, with 22 commercial reactors totaling 6,780 MWe capacity.
2nd Stage: Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs)
Use Uranium-Plutonium Mixed Oxide (MOX) fuel.
Breed plutonium (Pu-239) from Uranium-238 and transmute Thorium-232 to fissile Uranium-233 for 3rd stage fuel.
India’s Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) under BHAVINI is a flagship project; India will be the 2nd country after Russia with a commercial FBR.
Benefits include better fuel utilization, reduced nuclear waste, and passive safety features with cost competitiveness.
3rd Stage: Thorium-Based Reactors
Focus on utilizing abundant Indian Thorium reserves via Advanced Heavy Water Reactors (AHWR) using Uranium-233.
Integral to India’s long-term energy sustainability and carbon reduction goals.
Atomic Energy Act (AEA), 1962
Grants exclusive central government authority to produce and regulate atomic energy.
Controls the sector via Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) and NPCIL, restricting private participation.
Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (CLNDA), 2010
Establishes a no-fault liability regime where nuclear operators are primarily liable, capped at ₹1,500 crore (~$180 million).
Government covers excess damages up to 300 million SDRs.
Includes operator’s right of recourse against suppliers under specific conditions.
Provides structured claims adjudication and excludes civil courts to streamline compensation.
Crucial to enabling Indo-U.S. civil nuclear cooperation.
A historic shift in India’s nuclear policy, marked by Legal and regulatory reforms that will remove obstacles to private and foreign investment. It will access to advanced nuclear technologies through international partnerships, particularly with the U.S. It is also a significant expansion of India’s clean energy portfolio, reinforcing energy security and environmental commitments and Strengthening of the strategic civil nuclear cooperation framework with the U.S., aligning economic and geopolitical interests.
The FSR is published twice yearly (June and December) by the RBI, incorporating inputs from all financial sector regulators.
It provides a collective assessment by the Financial Stability and Development Council (FSDC) Sub-Committee on risks to India’s financial system stability.
India’s Economy:
Continues to be a key driver of global growth, backed by sound macroeconomic fundamentals and prudent policies.
Risks and Headwinds:
Geopolitical tensions, trade disruptions, and weather-related uncertainties pose downside risks.
Non-Performing Assets (NPA):
Gross NPA (GNPA) at 2.3% as of March 2025 (multi-decadal low).
Expected to rise slightly to 2.5% in baseline scenario.
For 46 major banks (holding 98% of SCBs’ assets), GNPA may increase to 2.6% by March 2027.
Capital Adequacy:
Banks maintain capital well above regulatory minimums.
Even under severe stress tests, capital ratios stay comfortably above required levels, signaling strong shock absorption capacity.
Inflation and Domestic Demand:
Growth is primarily domestic demand-driven.
Food inflation outlook is positive with softening prices and record crop production.
Financial System Health:
Stable banking and non-banking financial institutions (NBFCs) with healthy balance sheets.
NBFCs report robust earnings, good capital buffers, and improving asset quality.
Established: 2010 (non-statutory apex body by the Government of India)
Chairperson: Union Finance Minister
Members: Heads of RBI, SEBI, IRDAI, PFRDA, FMC (now merged with SEBI), Finance Secretary, other senior officials
Expanded: 2018, for broader regulatory coordination
Functions:
To Promote and maintain financial stability
To Encourage the financial sector development
To Facilitate the inter-regulatory coordination
To Address financial literacy, inclusion, and macroprudential supervision
Conducted to gauge expert and market participant views on five risk categories: Global, Financial, Macroeconomic, Institutional, and General Risks.
All categories rated as ‘medium risk’.
92% of respondents expressed high or unchanged confidence in the domestic financial system.
Major short-term threats: geopolitical tensions, capital outflows, global trade slowdowns.
Persistent concerns: rising global public debt amid heightened uncertainty.
India’s economy and financial system show strong resilience and growth potential. Economy Continued vigilance and regulatory coordination through the FSDC help maintain stability amid external risks and Overall confidence remains robust, supporting a positive outlook for India’s financial sector.
The Indian Navy’s stealth frigate INS Tabar (F44) recently responded swiftly to a fire outbreak on an oil vessel in the Gulf of Oman, showcasing its critical role in maritime safety and security.
INS Tabar is a stealth frigate built in Russia for the Indian Navy.
It is the third ship in the Talwar-class series.
Commissioned on April 19, 2004, in Kaliningrad, Russia.
Part of the Indian Navy’s Western Fleet, based in Mumbai under the Western Naval Command.
The first naval vessel to take deterrent action against piracy, successfully foiling multiple pirate attacks since.
Capabilities:
Designed for a variety of missions including air, surface (sea), and sub-surface (underwater) operations.
Can operate independently or within a larger naval fleet.
Equipped with sophisticated missile systems, radar technology, electronic warfare suites, and helicopters.
Advanced firefighting and damage-control systems enable handling of emergency situations effectively.
Key Features:
Crew complement: approximately 280 personnel.
Equipped with advanced weapons and sensor systems.
Top speed of 30 knots (about 56 km/h or 35 mph).
Weapons:
First Talwar-class ship armed with supersonic BrahMos anti-ship cruise missiles.
Also equipped with Barak-1 missiles for defense.
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We provide offline, online and recorded lectures in the same amount.
Every aspirant is unique and the mentoring is customised according to the strengths and weaknesses of the aspirant.
In every Lecture. Director Sir will provide conceptual understanding with around 800 Mindmaps.
We provide you the best and Comprehensive content which comes directly or indirectly in UPSC Exam.
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