A recent study has shed light on an important aspect of India's air pollution crisis: secondary pollutants, which now contribute to nearly one-third of PM2.5 pollution in the country. These pollutants are a significant and growing part of the problem, and their control is critical for improving air quality and public health in India.

What is Secondary Particulate Matter?

Secondary particulate matter refers to particles that don’t directly come from a source but instead form in the atmosphere when precursor gases react with other elements in the air. These precursor gases include:

• Sulfur dioxide (SO₂)

• Nitrogen oxides (NOₓ)

• Ammonia (NH₃)

Once emitted, these gases interact with other compounds, leading to the formation of pollutants such as:

• Ammonium sulfate (formed from the interaction of SO₂ and NH₃)

• Nitrates (from NOₓ)

• Ozone (a reactive gas that contributes to secondary pollution)

Why is India’s Role Critical?

India is one of the largest contributors to these precursor gases globally:

• Sulfur dioxide (SO₂): India emits the highest amount in the world—11.2 million tonnes annually.

• Nitrogen oxides (NOₓ): India is second only to China, emitting 9.4 million tonnes.

• Ammonia (NH₃): India ranks second globally, with 10.4 million tonnes of ammonia emissions.

These emissions create ideal conditions for the widespread formation of secondary pollutants, especially in areas with high coal consumption, such as thermal power plants, which are a major source of SO₂. The large amounts of sulfur in coal burn to produce SO₂, which, in turn, reacts with ammonia to form ammonium sulfate, a key contributor to PM2.5.

How Much of India’s PM2.5 Comes from Secondary Particles?

According to a study by the Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA):

• Ammonium sulfate accounts for 34% of the average PM2.5 concentration nationwide.

• More than 60% of SO₂ emissions in India come from coal-fired thermal power plants, which directly influence the formation of ammonium sulfate.

• Near coal-fired power plants, ammonium sulfate levels are 2.5 times higher than areas farther away (within 10 km vs. beyond 10 km).

• In areas within 10 km of such plants, ammonium sulfate contributes to 36% of PM2.5 levels, while in other areas, it remains significant at 23%.

The impact is felt across the country:

• In 130 NCAP cities, ammonium sulfate concentrations ranged from 3.9 µg/m³ to 22.5 µg/m³.

• In 114 cities, ammonium sulfate made up over 30% of the PM2.5 levels.

The Transboundary Nature of Secondary Particulate Matter

One of the key challenges with secondary particulate matter is its transboundary nature—it can travel across city, state, and even national borders, affecting air quality in regions far from the original source of emissions. For example:

• Even cities without large local sources of emissions can experience high PM2.5 levels due to the movement of secondary pollutants across regions.

• This means that addressing air pollution in India requires more than just local action; it requires coordinated regional and national strategies.

Key Findings from the CREA Study

The Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA) study highlights the rising importance of secondary pollutants in India’s air quality challenges:

1. Ammonium sulfate is responsible for up to 34% of India’s PM2.5 mass, with concentrations ranging from 3.9 to 22.5 μg/m³ across different cities.

2. Nationwide Impact: These pollutants are not confined to major urban centers or pollution hotspots. The transboundary nature of secondary pollution means that even distant cities experience high levels of ammonium sulfate, with an average concentration of 11.9 μg/m³ across the country.

3. Coal Power Plants: A major source of sulfur dioxide (SO₂), the precursor to ammonium sulfate, is coal-fired thermal power plants. These plants are responsible for over 60% of India’s SO₂ emissions, making them a key target for reducing secondary PM2.5 pollution.

   • Higher concentrations of ammonium sulfate are found within 10 km of coal power plants (15 µg/m³), compared to 6 µg/m³ in areas farther away.

   • Close to coal plants, ammonium sulfate contributes 36% of PM2.5, while it still accounts for 23% in more distant areas.

The Status of Emission Control Measures

Though Flue Gas Desulphurization (FGD) systems are mandated for coal thermal power plants to control SO₂ emissions, compliance has been poor—only about 8% of plants have installed the required systems. Furthermore, the government is considering rolling back the FGD installation requirement, which could be detrimental to efforts aimed at curbing secondary particulate pollution.

The Role of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP)

The National Clean Air Programme (NCAP), launched by the Government of India, aims to reduce air pollution levels across the country. However, given that secondary particulate matter is such a significant contributor to PM2.5, strengthening the NCAP is essential to effectively tackle India’s air pollution crisis. Some suggested measures include:

1. Targeting Precursor Gases:

   • The primary sources of SO₂, NOₓ, and NH₃ must be addressed, especially coal-fired power plants. Implementing flue gas desulfurization (FGD) systems in these plants could significantly reduce the formation of ammonium sulfate and help lower PM2.5 concentrations.

2. Strengthening Emission Controls:

   • India’s emission standards for thermal power plants and industries must be improved to ensure that they meet stricter limits for SO₂, NOₓ, and NH₃ emissions.

3. Cross-State Cooperation:

   • The issue of transboundary pollution means that states and regions must work together to share data, implement coordinated measures, and ensure that pollution is addressed at the source and downwind areas.

4. Long-Term Strategies:

   • Policy reforms are needed to reduce coal dependency, transition to cleaner energy sources, and promote better waste management, especially in urban areas.

5. Public Awareness and Health:

   • Strengthening public awareness about the sources of pollution, including secondary pollutants, and its impact on health will be critical in fostering long-term changes

Strategies for Mitigation

To tackle the growing burden of secondary particulate matter, several strategies need to be implemented:

1. Strict Enforcement of Emission Norms:

   • Flue Gas Desulphurization (FGD) systems must be strictly enforced to curb SO₂ emissions from coal power plants.

   • A rollback of FGD requirements would undermine progress and compromise public health.

2. Agricultural and Industrial Reforms:

   • Efficient fertilizer management is essential to reduce ammonia emissions, which are a key precursor for secondary particles.

   • Transitioning industries towards cleaner technologies can help reduce NOₓ and SO₂ emissions.

3. Source-Specific Actions:

   • Pollution mitigation should target both direct emission sources and the precursor gases (SO₂ and NH₃) that form secondary pollutants.

    

4. Real-Time Monitoring and Research:

   • Enhanced air quality monitoring infrastructure should be developed to track secondary pollutants in real-time, helping policymakers adapt to evolving air quality challenges.

   • Continuous research into secondary pollutant formation and their impacts will inform future strategies.

Conclusion

India’s air pollution challenge is becoming increasingly complex due to the rising importance of secondary pollutants like ammonium sulfate, which now contribute up to one-third of the PM2.5 pollution in the country. With coal-fired power plants being a major source of these pollutants, effective strategies to tackle emissions—especially SO₂, NOₓ, and NH₃—are crucial.

For the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) to succeed, policymakers must focus on stricter emission controls, effective pollution mitigation strategies, and regional collaboration. Additionally, real-time monitoring and research into the formation of secondary pollutants will be key to improving air quality in India’s cities.

Group Captain Shubhanshu Shukla’s Myogenesis experiments on the ISS represent a major leap forward in India’s space research efforts, focusing on the formation and regulation of muscle fibers in microgravity. This research is not only important for advancing space medicine but also for understanding muscle biology on Earth, especially in the context of muscle repair and diseases.

What is Myogenesis?

Myogenesis is the biological process by which muscle fibers are formed. It involves the differentiation of precursor cells known as myoblasts into multinucleated muscle fibers, essential for the development, growth, and repair of skeletal muscle tissue. Muscle formation is critical for:

• Movement: Muscles enable all voluntary and involuntary movements.

• Posture: Muscles support the body’s structure and alignment.

• Metabolism: Muscle tissues play a key role in energy expenditure and metabolic regulation.

Why is Myogenesis Important?

• Embryonic Development: Myogenesis is crucial during embryonic development, setting the foundation for muscle structure.

• Muscle Repair and Regeneration: The process continues to be important throughout life, aiding muscle repair after injury and contributing to muscle regeneration.

• Therapeutic Strategies for Muscle Diseases: Understanding myogenesis has vast potential in treating conditions like muscular dystrophy or age-related muscle loss (sarcopenia), which involve impaired muscle regeneration.

The Myogenesis Process:

1. Myoblast Proliferation: The precursor cells (myoblasts) multiply, increasing their numbers to ensure sufficient cells for muscle formation.

2. Differentiation: The myoblasts undergo significant molecular changes that enable them to transform into muscle fibers, known as myotubes. This step is tightly regulated by specific transcription factors like MyoD and Myf5.

   • MyoD: Known as a "master regulator," MyoD activates genes that push myoblasts toward muscle differentiation.

   • Myf5: Works in the early stages, regulating myoblast proliferation and their initial specification into muscle cells.

3. Fusion: The differentiated myoblasts fuse together to form multinucleated myotubes, which are the precursor to muscle fibers.

4. Maturation: These myotubes mature into fully developed muscle fibers that can contract and function as skeletal muscle.

How Space Research is Transforming Our Understanding of Myogenesis:

• In the microgravity environment of space, muscles face a unique challenge: muscle atrophy. Without the force of gravity, muscles don’t need to work as hard to support the body, leading to a loss of muscle mass and strength.

• By studying myogenesis aboard the International Space Station (ISS), researchers can understand how muscle formation and regeneration occur in the absence of gravity, which could lead to insights into muscle preservation techniques for astronauts.

• Additionally, these findings could inform medical strategies on Earth, especially for muscle-wasting diseases or conditions like sarcopenia, which primarily affect the elderly.

Cellular Regulation in Myogenesis:

• The key to proper myogenesis lies in the cellular processes regulating myoblast proliferation and differentiation. These processes are controlled by intricate networks of signaling pathways and transcription factors.

  • For instance, MyoD is responsible for activating genes that are essential for muscle-specific functions.

  • Myf5, on the other hand, regulates early stages of muscle cell development, ensuring myoblasts are correctly specified to become muscle cells.

Potential Applications and Benefits of the Research:

• Space Medicine: The primary application of Shubhanshu Shukla’s experiments is understanding muscle degeneration during long-term space missions. This could help develop countermeasures like specialized exercise regimens or medications to prevent muscle loss in astronauts.

• Earth-based Therapies: The knowledge gained from space experiments on myogenesis can also help develop treatments for muscle-related diseases such as muscular dystrophy, ALS (Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis), and sarcopenia, where muscle regeneration is compromised.

• Gene Therapy & Regenerative Medicine: By better understanding the genetic regulation of muscle development, future therapies could involve gene editing or stem cell treatments to restore muscle function in those with muscle-wasting conditions.

Future of Myogenesis in Space and on Earth:

These experiments could lay the groundwork for future research on:

• Space Rehabilitation: Techniques to help astronauts regain muscle mass after extended missions.

• Biotechnology and Drug Development: New pharmaceuticals or genetic therapies that mimic or enhance the effects of myogenesis for muscle repair and regeneration.

• Age-Related Muscle Atrophy: Combatting sarcopenia and other degenerative muscle diseases through better understanding of myogenic processes.

Conclusion:

By studying myogenesis in space, India is not only making strides in space exploration but also paving the way for medical breakthroughs. Group Captain Shubhanshu Shukla’s research aboard the ISS could hold the key to improving muscle health for both astronauts and the general population, especially for people suffering from muscle degeneration conditions.

A scholarship scheme under the Pradhan Mantri Uchchatar Shiksha Protsahan (PM-USP) initiative by the Ministry of Education’s Department of Higher Education. It Provides financial assistance to meritorious students from economically weaker sections pursuing higher education.The Scholarships are awarded based on Class 12 Board Examination results.

Scholarship Allocation

• Total fresh scholarships per year: 82,000 (41,000 boys + 41,000 girls).

  For Graduate, Postgraduate, and professional courses (medical, engineering, etc.).

  Distribution among States depends on the population of 18-25 year olds and Board-wise pass-out numbers (CBSE, ICSE, State Boards).

  Scholarships divided among Science, Commerce, Humanities streams in the ratio 3:2:1 (can be adjusted if applications fall short).

Scholarship Benefits

Funds disbursed directly to students’ bank accounts via Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT).

Eligibility Criteria

• Must be pursuing a regular degree course at recognized institutions (AICTE/UGC or other regulatory bodies).

  Family income ≤ ₹4.5 lakh per annum.

  Maintain at least 50% marks and 75% attendance yearly for scholarship renewal.

  Must have a bank account in their own name.

  Applications must be verified by the student’s institution (college/university).

  Originals may be required for verification. Applications without verification are invalid.

Who is NOT Eligible?

• Students pursuing correspondence, distance education, or diploma courses.

  Those already benefiting from any other scholarships or fee waiver/reimbursement schemes (including state scholarships).

The Meghalaya High Court has admitted a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) concerning the tribal certificate issuance for the Khasi community.This PIL challenges a government decision that has halted the issuance of Scheduled Tribe (ST) certificates to certain categories of Khasi applicants.The case could have far-reaching consequences for hundreds of Khasi individuals awaiting tribal certificates, which are essential for accessing various legal and social benefits.

About the Khasi People

• Location: Mainly in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills of Meghalaya, with smaller populations in Assam and Bangladesh.

• Origin: One of the earliest ethnic groups in the region, believed to have migrated from Tibet or Burma around 500 B.C.

• Clans: Include Lyngdoh, Diengdoh, Marbaniang, Shiemliah, Lapang, Songkali, among others.

• Physical traits: Generally of short stature.

Language and Culture

• Language: Khasi is the primary language, deeply tied to their identity; English and Hindi are also spoken.

• Matrilineal Society: Lineage and inheritance pass through the mother’s side; women hold significant roles in family decisions and management.

Religion

• Majority are Christians, with minorities practicing Hinduism and Islam.

Festivals and Cultural Highlights

• Shad Suk Mynsiem: Spring festival celebrating nature and fertility with traditional dances.

• Nongkrem Dance Festival: Five-day religious festival praying for a good harvest.

• Behdienkhlam Festival: Ritual to ward off evil spirits and bring health and fortune.

• Traditional music includes instruments like the Duitara (stringed) and Tangmuri (bamboo flute)

Governance

• The Khasi Hills Autonomous District Council protects their customary laws and autonomy.

Livelihood and Socioeconomic Status

• Traditionally agrarian, with cultivation as the primary livelihood.

• Khasi youth increasingly successful in diverse professional fields such as medicine, engineering, business, and education.

• Officially recognized as a Scheduled Tribe (ST), granting them:

  • The right to practice customary laws.

  • Tax benefits.

  • Land designated for their use.

  • Reserved quotas in education and employment.

Odisha High Court issued a notice to the Integrated Tribal Development Agency (ITDA) over a ban on Munda tribals from accessing Jayara, a sacred grove inside the tiger reserve.This raised concerns over the conflict between conservation efforts (e.g. tiger reintroduction) and tribal rights under the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006.

Background:

• The Jayara site is sacred to the Munda tribe and is part of their ancestral ritual tradition.

  In January 2025, the STR authorities prohibited access citing safety concerns due to the Tiger Supplementation Program.

  Tribals argue this violates their rights under the Forest Rights Act, 2006 and threatens their cultural heritage.

  The matter is currently sub judice, with the next court hearing scheduled for July 21, 2025.

About Similipal Tiger Reserve

Situated in the Mayurbhanj District, Odisha (northernmost part). It Falls under the Deccan Peninsular Biogeographic Zone and Lies at the confluence of Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, and Northeast Himalayan biodiversity zones—making it ecologically unique.STR forms part of the Mayurbhanj Elephant Reserve, including Hadgarh and Kuldiha sanctuarie The area is also rich in sacred groves (Jayara) used for tribal rituals, reflecting deep cultural ties to the land.

Vegetation

• Northern Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests dominate and Semi-evergreen patches and grasslands also exist. It is Rich in medicinal and aromatic plants. The Dominant tree species: Sal (Shorea robusta).

Water Bodies

At least twelve rivers cut across the plain area, all of which drain into the Bay of Bengal. The prominent among them are Burhabalanga, Palpala Bandan, Salandi, Kahairi, and Deo

Fauna

• It is Home to: Bengal tiger (highest population in Odisha) Asian elephant Hill mynah (state bird of Chhattisgarh and key indicator species) Leopard, Gaur, Sambar, Four-horned antelope, Wild boar, Barking deer, Jungle cat and Reptiles: King cobra, Tricarinate hill turtle

Timeline & Legal Status

Indigenous Tribes

• It is Home to several tribal groups, including: Munda, Ho, Gond, Bhumija, Kolha and Particularly vulnerable tribal groups (PVTGs): Erenga Kharia, Mankidia

  Tribes rely on forest resources for livelihood and cultural practices. Sacred groves like Jayara are central to tribal rituals and identity.

Major Threats to Similipal

• Forest Fires: Caused naturally by lightning or dry conditions.

  • Often man-made, e.g.: Fires lit for mahua flower collection. Fires used by poachers to flush out wildlife.

  Poaching and habitat intrusion

  Conflicts between conservation and tribal rights

Conservation Significance

• It acts as a biodiversity hotspot for the eastern Indian subcontinent.

  It Links ecological systems of three major bio-geographic zones.

  It Protects endangered species like the Bengal tiger, King cobra, and Tricarinate hill turtle.

  It is Culturally rich due to presence of sacred groves, tribal customs, and traditional ecological knowledge.

A fascinating new species of flowering plant, Begonia nyishiorum, has been discovered in the East Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh, further highlighting the rich but underexplored biodiversity of the Eastern Himalayan region.

What Is Begonia nyishiorum?

Begonia nyishiorum is a newly identified species belonging to the Begoniaceae family. It is endemic to Arunachal Pradesh, meaning it is found nowhere else in the world. The plant has been named in honor of the Nyishi tribe, the largest indigenous community in the region, known for their close connection with and stewardship of local forests

Natural Habitat

This species thrives in moist, shaded mountain slopes at elevations ranging between 1,500 and 3,000 metres. It has been located in just two remote, high-altitude forest sites in East Kameng — areas that often experience early winter snowfall. These pristine ecosystems remain largely untouched and are protected by the local communities.

Key Features

• Crimson-Fringed Petioles:
  The plant’s light green stalks are bordered with dense crimson-colored fringes, a trait not seen in any other known Asian begonia species.

  High-Altitude Adaptation:
  It thrives in sub-zero conditions and on steep mountain slopes, making it a remarkable example of Himalayan floral adaptation.

  Unique Indumentum:
  The plant features a dense hair-like covering (indumentum), unlike anything documented in over 2,150 global begonia species.

  Extremely Limited Range:
  With its occurrence confirmed in only two forest patches, the species has a very restricted distribution, increasing its ecological vulnerability.

Conservation Status & Next Steps

• The species has been assessed as Data Deficient on the IUCN Red List, indicating insufficient data on its population and threats

Why It Matters

• Biodiversity Significance:
  The discovery of Begonia nyishiorum reaffirms Arunachal Pradesh as a critical biodiversity hotspot and a cradle of Himalayan plant evolution.

  Urgency for Conservation:
  Its limited habitat range calls for immediate conservation efforts to protect these fragile, high-altitude ecosystems from threats like human encroachment and climate change.

  Global Scientific Recognition:
  The find enhances India’s standing in global botanical taxonomy and showcases the country’s importance in ongoing conservation science.