The Plutonium Management and Disposition Agreement (PMDA) is a significant arms control deal aimed at reducing the risk of nuclear proliferation and securing the disposal of excess weapons-grade plutonium, which both Russia and the United States accumulated during the Cold War.
The PMDA was signed in 2000 between the U.S. and Russia, and came into force in 2011.
The agreement was born out of the need to dispose of the vast stockpiles of weapons-grade plutonium that both nations had after dismantling nuclear warheads from the Cold War.
Both countries were left with huge stockpiles of plutonium that were expensive to store and posed a risk of being diverted into weapons development.
Reduce the weapons-grade plutonium stockpile by converting it into safer forms such as mixed oxide (MOX) fuel or by using fast-neutron reactors to generate electricity.
Each country committed to dispose of at least 34 tonnes of plutonium, reducing the global stockpile of potentially dangerous materials.
The U.S. and Russia initially made progress in implementing the PMDA. However, Russia suspended its participation in 2016 due to several factors, including:
U.S. sanctions on Russia, which had been imposed after the annexation of Crimea and other geopolitical tensions.
Russia’s perception that the U.S. was acting unfriendly by expanding NATO and changing its plutonium disposal methods without consulting Russia.
U.S. Plan to dilute plutonium and dispose of it, which Russia disagreed with as it violated the original terms of the agreement.
The suspension by Russia in 2016 has created a significant setback in the agreement. Both nations still hold large stockpiles of weapons-grade plutonium, and the question of how to securely dispose of these remains unresolved.
The U.S. move to dilute plutonium, which Russia opposed, is one of the central issues that led to the suspension of the PMDA.
In March 2025, the discovery of around 100 dead wild boars in the Nangal Wildlife Sanctuary in India has raised environmental and safety concerns. The postmortem report points to toxic waste in Nangal Lake as a potential cause of death for these animals. The toxic contamination could potentially be linked to industrial waste or nuclear material if the reports confirm such a connection.
If the contamination in Nangal Lake is indeed linked to nuclear waste, this could tie into broader concerns about radioactive materials being improperly stored or disposed of, similar to issues raised by the Plutonium Management and Disposition Agreement (PMDA).
While there’s no direct link established between the PMDA and this environmental issue, the risk of toxic waste in ecosystems, especially in regions close to nuclear material storage or disposal sites, could be a growing concern globally.
Environmental Safeguards: Incidents like the one in Nangal Wildlife Sanctuary underscore the need for stronger environmental safeguards when dealing with hazardous materials, including nuclear waste.
Global Nuclear Waste Management: The ongoing difficulties in implementing the PMDA reflect the broader global challenges of managing and disposing of nuclear waste, and the potential environmental and health impacts, as seen in the Nangal Sanctuary case.
Diplomatic Tensions: The suspension of the PMDA by Russia adds another layer of complexity to the global nuclear disarmament process, especially as both superpowers grapple with their own national interests and security concerns.
This situation could also lead to greater international discussions on nuclear waste disposal and the need for international cooperation to ensure that such materials do not pose a threat to human or animal life.
The Subansiri Upper Hydroelectric Project has been a subject of intense debate and protest, especially following recent demonstrations in Daporijo, Arunachal Pradesh.
Location: The project is planned on the Subansiri River in Arunachal Pradesh, which is part of the Brahmaputra River Basin.
Installed Capacity: The project aims to generate 1,800 MW of hydropower.
Expected Completion: The project is slated to enter commercial operation by 2031.
Ownership and Development: It is being developed by KSK Upper Subansiri Hydro Energy (a subsidiary of KSK Energy Ventures).
Gross Head: The project will have a gross head of 199.5 meters, which indicates the height difference between the water source and the turbine, crucial for its power generation efficiency.
Electricity Generation: The project is expected to generate approximately 6,581.29 GWh of electricity annually.
Cost: Estimated at $2,346.87 million, or approximately ?18,000 crore.
Origin: The Subansiri River originates from the western part of Mount Porom (5059 m) in the Tibetan Himalayas. It is a Trans-Himalayan river.
Importance: Known as the Gold River, the Subansiri is famous for carrying gold dust in its waters.
Tributaries: Some key tributaries of the river include Laro, Nye, Yume, Tsari, Kamla, Jiyadhol, Ranganadi, and Dikrong.
Confluence with Brahmaputra: The Subansiri joins the Brahmaputra River in the Lakhimpur district of Assam.
Geographical Coverage: The river flows through Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, and the Tibet Autonomous Region of China, making it a transnational watercourse.
The Subansiri Upper Hydroelectric Project presents a complex challenge of balancing economic growth and energy production with environmental conservation, tribal rights, and local concerns. The protests in Daporijo underscore the deep-seated resistance from local communities, especially those who feel that their environment, livelihood, and culture could be compromised by the project.
The Damodar River has recently been in the news due to a dramatic rescue event, where a 65-year-old woman was swept away by its swollen waters but managed to be rescued nearly 45 km downstream in West Bengal.
Location: The Damodar River flows through the states of Jharkhand and West Bengal in eastern India.
Length: The river stretches for 592 kilometers, making it one of the major rivers in this region.
Catchment Area: The river’s basin covers an area of 25,820 square kilometers, with several tributaries feeding into it.
Joining the Hooghly: The Damodar River finally meets the Hooghly River at Shayampur, located about 48 km from Kolkata.
Origin: The river originates from the Palamau Hills in the Chota Nagpur Plateau, Jharkhand.
It flows in a southeastern direction, passing through rich mineral areas like Chota Nagpur before reaching the plains of West Bengal.
Tributaries: Major tributaries include the Barakar, Konar, Jamunia, Bokaro, Sali, Ghari, Guaia, Khadia, and Bhera rivers, which feed into the Damodar as it flows.
The Damodar River is an important component of the Ganges River System. Due to its course, it plays a crucial role in the agriculture and irrigation of the region, particularly in West Bengal.
Flooding Issues: Historically, the river has been referred to as the “Sorrow of Bengal” due to its tendency to flood the plains of West Bengal, causing widespread damage.
To mitigate the damage caused by the river's floods and harness its power, the Damodar Valley Project was implemented. This project is one of the most significant river valley projects in Eastern India.
Objective: The project was initiated to:
Control flooding along the Damodar River.
Provide hydroelectric power to West Bengal and Bihar.
Promote irrigation for agriculture.
Execution: The project is operated by the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC), a government undertaking established in July 1948.
Hydroelectric Power: The project includes several dams and reservoirs, such as the Konar Dam in Hazaribagh, which contribute to electricity generation.
Flood Control: The project includes various flood control measures, such as dams and reservoirs, to prevent the river from overflowing and causing damage.
The Damodar River is both an essential natural resource and a source of potential danger. The ongoing efforts through the Damodar Valley Project aim to harness the river's power while minimizing its destructive impact. However, the recent incident of the woman being swept away serves as a reminder of the risks posed by the river, particularly during the monsoon season.
The Foreign Currency Settlement System (FCSS) has been launched by the Union Finance Minister at the International Financial Services Centre (IFSC) in Gujarat International Finance Tec-City (GIFT City).
The Foreign Currency Settlement System (FCSS) aims to facilitate foreign currency transactions between IFSC Banking Units (IBUs) and ensure they are settled locally, rather than relying on the traditional correspondent banking routes.
It is part of a comprehensive legal and regulatory framework under the Payment and Settlement Systems Act, 2007, and is authorized by the International Financial Services Centres Authority (IFSCA).
Local Settlement of Foreign Currency Transactions:
Instead of using the correspondent banking system (which often involves a complex network of intermediary banks and multiple Nostro accounts held with foreign banks), the FCSS allows foreign currency transactions to be settled locally within the IFSC.
This shift eliminates the need for a chain of intermediary institutions, which can lead to delays in transactions.
Speed and Reliability:
By localizing settlement processes, the FCSS ensures that cross-border payments are processed with greater speed, reliability, and legal certainty.
This can significantly reduce settlement lags (which can sometimes extend to 36-48 hours) under the old correspondent banking system.
Initial Support for US Dollar Transactions:
The system will initially support transactions in US dollars. Over time, there are plans to expand the system to include other foreign currencies.
Operation by CCIL IFSC Limited:
The system is operated by CCIL IFSC Limited, a subsidiary of the Clearing Corporation of India Limited (CCIL), which will handle the settlement and clearing of transactions.
Enhanced Legal and Regulatory Framework:
The system will operate within a structured legal and regulatory framework, enhancing the legal certainty and transparency of cross-border payments.
The IFSCA is a statutory body established under the International Financial Services Centres Authority Act, 2019. It plays a central role in the development and regulation of financial services in IFSCs in India.
Development and Regulation:
The IFSCA regulates the financial products, services, and institutions that operate within the IFSC.
Promotion of Global Financial Linkages:
The IFSCA’s mandate includes fostering global financial linkages while focusing on the economic needs of India and its region.
It aims to position India’s IFSC (GIFT City) as an international financial hub, catering not only to Indian needs but also serving as a regional platform for financial services in Asia and beyond.
Headquarters:
The IFSCA is headquartered at GIFT City, located in Gandhinagar, Gujarat, which is India’s first International Financial Services Centre.
Improved Efficiency:
Settlement time for foreign currency transactions will significantly decrease, benefiting businesses and financial institutions that rely on fast and secure cross-border payments.
Cost Reduction:
By removing the need for multiple intermediaries and Nostro accounts, the FCSS could reduce the cost of cross-border transactions, making it more attractive for global investors and institutions to engage with India’s financial markets.
Strengthening India's Global Financial Position:
The GIFT City is positioning itself as a competitive international financial hub, and systems like FCSS will be key in attracting foreign investors and global financial players. The FCSS enhances the overall infrastructure for foreign currency transactions, aligning with India’s broader goals of financial market modernization and increasing its global financial footprint.
Encouraging Investment and Trade:
By making cross-border transactions more efficient and cost-effective, the FCSS is likely to boost international trade and investment flows into India, particularly in sectors like banking, insurance, and capital markets.
The launch of FCSS is a significant step towards establishing India’s IFSC (GIFT City) as a global financial hub. This is in line with broader economic reforms that aim to integrate India more effectively into the global financial system.
With the rise of digital finance and globalization, such systems will allow India to handle foreign currency transactions in a more secure, efficient, and cost-effective manner, further strengthening its position in the international financial market.
The Foreign Currency Settlement System (FCSS) is a pioneering step in modernizing India's financial infrastructure and improving its global financial connectivity. By reducing reliance on traditional correspondent banking routes and enabling faster and more reliable settlements, the system is poised to significantly impact India’s financial sector, boosting its attractiveness as a destination for global trade and investment.
The Mera Hou Chongba Festival was recently celebrated in Manipur, symbolizing the unity between the hills and valleys of the state. This festival holds immense cultural significance as it brings together various indigenous communities, reinforcing communal harmony and brotherhood in Manipur.
The Mera Hou Chongba festival is celebrated annually on the 15th lunar day of the Mera month of the Meitei calendar. The festival typically falls in October or November.
The festival traces its origins back to the time of Nongda Lairen Pakhangba, a legendary ruler of Manipur. His reign is considered the foundation for the festival’s significance, representing the unity of different tribes and communities in the region.
The festival begins with a ritual march led by the Manipur titular King, accompanied by tribal village chiefs. This procession travels from the Manipur Royal Palace to the historic Kangla Fort, which is a symbolic site in the history of the state.
Some key rituals include:
Mera Thaomei Thanba: This is the lighting of the ceremonial fire during the festival, marking a sacred beginning to the celebration.
Mera Yenkhong Tamba: A tradition where gifts are exchanged among the participating communities, symbolizing peace, brotherhood, and the spirit of togetherness.
After the rituals, the festival culminates in a grand showcase of traditional cultural dances and performances, reflecting the rich heritage of the indigenous communities.
The festival concludes with a grand feast, where people from different ethnic groups come together to celebrate and bond over food, reinforcing the theme of unity among tribes.
Unity in Diversity: The festival is the only one in Manipur in which all indigenous communities participate, making it a unique occasion for cultural exchange and social cohesion.
It is seen as a powerful expression of hill-valley unity, bridging the gap between the diverse groups that make up the fabric of Manipur society.
Mera Hou Chongba has a deep cultural and spiritual meaning, emphasizing community ties, mutual respect, and the strength of diversity.
The festival encourages communal harmony, which is crucial in a state like Manipur, with its rich ethnic diversity and historical complexities.
The Mera Hou Chongba Festival serves as a vibrant celebration of Manipur’s cultural diversity and social harmony. By bringing together different communities, it highlights the importance of hill-valley unity and fosters an environment of mutual respect and understanding.
Recent studies have highlighted a concerning link between diets high in ultra-processed foods (UPFs) and worsening inflammation in the gut, which may increase the likelihood of Crohn's disease flare-ups.
Crohn's disease is a type of chronic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which causes inflammation and irritation in the digestive tract. It is a long-term condition that can have a significant impact on a person’s health and quality of life.
Location of Inflammation: Crohn’s disease can affect any part of the digestive tract, from the mouth to the anus, but it most commonly affects the small intestine and the beginning of the large intestine.
Depth of Inflammation: The inflammation often extends into the deeper layers of the bowel, which can lead to more serious complications.
Diarrhea: A common symptom due to inflammation in the gut.
Abdominal Cramping and Pain: Inflammation in the digestive tract causes discomfort and pain.
Weight Loss: Due to malabsorption of nutrients.
Fatigue: Due to the body’s constant immune response and nutritional deficiencies.
Fever: In some cases, the body’s response to inflammation leads to fever.
The disease is most often diagnosed in people aged 20 to 29, though it can develop at any age.
The exact cause of Crohn’s disease is not yet fully understood, but several factors are believed to contribute:
Genetic Factors: There is a hereditary component, as people with a family history of IBD are more likely to develop Crohn’s disease.
Immune System Abnormalities: Crohn’s disease is thought to be caused by an abnormal immune system response, where the body’s immune system mistakenly attacks the gastrointestinal tract.
Microbiome Imbalance: The gut microbiome (the community of bacteria and other microbes in the digestive tract) plays a key role in the disease. An imbalance in gut bacteria may trigger inflammation.
Environmental Factors: Factors such as smoking, diet, and stress have also been linked to the development of Crohn’s disease or its flare-ups.
Currently, there is no known cure for Crohn’s disease, but various therapies can help manage the disease effectively. The treatment goals are to reduce inflammation, control symptoms, and maintain remission.
Medications:
Anti-inflammatory drugs (e.g., corticosteroids, aminosalicylates)
Immunosuppressive drugs (e.g., azathioprine, methotrexate)
Biologics: These are advanced drugs that target specific proteins involved in the immune response (e.g., anti-TNF agents like infliximab).
Diet and Nutrition:
While there is no specific "Crohn’s diet", avoiding trigger foods and maintaining proper nutrition is crucial. Some people may benefit from low-residue diets or elemental nutrition (liquid diets).
Recent studies suggest that ultra-processed foods (UPFs), such as junk food, fast food, and packaged snacks, can exacerbate gut inflammation. These foods often contain refined sugars, artificial additives, and trans fats, which may worsen Crohn’s symptoms or trigger flare-ups.
Surgery:
In severe cases where medication is ineffective, surgery may be needed to remove damaged sections of the bowel or treat complications like fistulas or abscesses.
Lifestyle Adjustments:
Stress management and avoiding smoking are important for preventing flare-ups.
A whole-foods diet rich in fiber, lean proteins, and healthy fats (such as omega-3 fatty acids) may help reduce the severity of symptoms and maintain remission.
Emphasizing anti-inflammatory foods like leafy greens, fruits, and whole grains could have a positive impact on gut health.
While Crohn’s disease remains a challenging condition with no cure, significant progress has been made in its management through medications, dietary adjustments, and lifestyle changes. Recent findings on the impact of ultra-processed foods (UPFs) underscore the importance of diet in managing gut inflammation and preventing flare-ups.
Recently, the Chief Justice of India praised the Income Tax Appellate Tribunal (ITAT) for its significant contribution to the justice delivery system, especially marking its 84th anniversary.
The Income Tax Appellate Tribunal (ITAT) is a quasi-judicial institution established in 1941. It is specialized in handling appeals related to direct tax disputes and is one of the most important bodies in India’s taxation system.
ITAT was set up in January 1941 with an initial team of six members forming three benches in Delhi, Kolkata (Calcutta), and Mumbai (Bombay).
Over time, the number of benches has increased significantly, and it now has 63 benches across 27 cities, covering almost all major cities where high courts are located.
The ITAT operates under the Ministry of Law and Justice.
President of ITAT: The President is responsible for constituting benches from among the members of ITAT.
Bench Structure:
Each bench comprises two members:
Judicial Member: A legal expert.
Accountant Member: An expert in taxation matters.
Special Benches: In certain cases, a special bench may be formed with three or more members to handle complex cases.
The ITAT is the second appellate forum in the income tax dispute process after the Commissioner of Income Tax (Appeals). Its main functions are:
Adjudicating Appeals: It hears appeals arising from disputes concerning the Income Tax Act of 1961.
Dispute Resolution: ITAT serves as a critical platform for resolving conflicts between taxpayers and income tax authorities.
Final Fact-Finding Body: The ITAT is the final fact-finding body on tax disputes. This means it has the authority to make decisions based on facts, and its rulings on facts are final.
Jurisdiction: ITAT operates under the jurisdiction of the regional High Courts, and must follow the High Court’s rules.
Appeal to High Court: The ITAT’s orders are final unless a substantial question of law arises, in which case the case can be appealed to the High Court.
Taxpayers: If a taxpayer is dissatisfied with the assessment order or any other order passed by an income-tax authority, they can file an appeal with ITAT.
Income Tax Authorities: If the income tax department disagrees with an order passed by the Commissioner of Income-tax (Appeals), it can also file an appeal to the ITAT.
Appeal Process:
The ITAT serves as a forum for resolving disputes arising from orders passed by the Commissioner of Income-tax (Appeals).
Once the ITAT makes a decision, the case is considered final unless it involves a substantial question of law, which can then be taken up by the High Court.
The ITAT plays an indispensable role in the Indian legal system by providing an accessible platform for taxpayers and tax authorities to resolve disputes related to income tax. Over the years, it has contributed significantly to ensuring fairness and transparency in the tax system.
Efficient Dispute Resolution: It provides speedier resolution for disputes compared to courts, helping in reducing the burden on the judicial system.
Expertise: Its composition of judicial and accountant members ensures that the tribunal has expertise in both legal and financial aspects of tax matters.
Public Trust: By consistently delivering fair rulings on complex tax matters, ITAT has earned the trust of both taxpayers and the government.
The ITAT has been a cornerstone of India's tax dispute resolution system for over 84 years. It continues to evolve, ensuring efficient and impartial justice in the domain of direct taxes. The Chief Justice of India’s recent praise underscores the critical role it plays in maintaining the integrity and transparency of India's tax system.
Recently, the Supreme Court of India has sought responses from the Centre, the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA), and other concerned parties regarding a Public Interest Litigation (PIL). This PIL seeks a CBI probe into an alleged organised tiger-poaching and illegal wildlife trade racket operating in states like Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.
The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) is a statutory body created to provide statutory authority to the Project Tiger initiative. Established under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (WPA 1972), it plays a pivotal role in tiger conservation in India.
Year Established: 2006
Ministry: Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MoEFCC)
Statutory Support for Project Tiger: The NTCA provides a legal framework to the Project Tiger scheme, ensuring that directives are legally binding.
Support for Tiger Range States: It provides financial support and strategic guidance to states for the in-situ conservation of tigers in designated tiger reserves.
Accountability and Coordination: The NTCA fosters coordination between the Center and State for managing tiger reserves and ensuring accountability in conservation efforts.
Livelihood Support for Local Communities: It addresses the livelihood needs of local populations in and around tiger reserves, balancing conservation with local economic needs.
Parliamentary Oversight: NTCA ensures parliamentary oversight for tiger conservation initiatives.
The NTCA is a multi-tiered body with representation from various sectors of the government:
Chairperson: The Minister in charge of MoEFCC.
Vice-Chairperson: The Minister of State in MoEFCC.
Other Members: Three members from Parliament, the Secretary of MoEFCC, and additional members with expertise in various areas related to wildlife conservation.
The NTCA has a comprehensive mandate under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (amended in 2006), focusing on ensuring the long-term conservation of tigers and their habitats.
Approval of Conservation Plans: It approves the tiger conservation plans proposed by state governments to ensure their alignment with national objectives.
Protection and Habitat Management:
Ensures that tiger reserves and adjoining areas are protected from ecologically unsustainable activities, such as mining and industrial development.
Regulates tourism activities in tiger reserves to ensure they are sustainable.
Conflict Management:
Focuses on mitigating human-wildlife conflicts, especially between local communities and tigers, outside protected areas.
Research and Monitoring:
Facilitates research on tigers, co-predators, prey species, and related ecological factors. It also monitors tiger populations, prey densities, and habitat quality.
Capacity Building:
It runs training and capacity-building programs for forest officials and other stakeholders to enhance their skills in tiger conservation and management.
Sustainable Eco-Development:
Promotes eco-development activities around tiger reserves, supporting local communities with alternative livelihoods that do not conflict with conservation goals.
Issue Directions for Protection:
The NTCA has the authority to issue binding directions to any individual or authority for the protection of tigers and their habitats.
The recent PIL regarding poaching and illegal wildlife trade highlights the ongoing challenges faced by the NTCA and other wildlife agencies:
Poaching and Illegal Trade: Despite the NTCA’s efforts, illegal poaching of tigers for their skins, bones, and other body parts continues to be a major threat.
Human-Wildlife Conflict: In areas with high human populations near tiger reserves, conflicts can arise when tigers stray into villages, leading to both human and animal casualties.
Pressure from Development: Infrastructure projects, such as roads and dams, often threaten tiger habitats, leading to fragmentation and loss of connectivity between reserves.
Lack of Resources: Despite being a statutory body, the NTCA often faces resource constraints, including limited funding for long-term conservation and monitoring.
The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) is an essential institution for the protection and management of India's tiger population. Its role is critical not only for ensuring the survival of tigers but also for maintaining the health of the ecosystems they inhabit. The recent Supreme Court petition underlines the need for stronger action against poaching and illegal wildlife trade, which remains a constant challenge. Going forward, the NTCA’s focus on coordinated management, sustainable development, and community involvement will be crucial for the long-term success of Project Tiger.
India recently defended Qatar’s sovereignty at the U.N. Human Rights Council, emphasizing its right to maintain its domestic policies and governance, particularly in light of international criticisms.
Qatar, officially the State of Qatar, is a small but strategically important country located in Western Asia on the northeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula. Here's a detailed look at the country:
Area: 11,586 square kilometers
Borders: It shares a land border only with Saudi Arabia to the south, while it is surrounded by the Persian Gulf on all other sides.
Proximity to Other Countries: The Gulf of Bahrain separates Qatar from the Kingdom of Bahrain.
Capital: Doha, the largest and most populous city.
Qatar’s landscape is largely flat and barren desert.
The southern part features vast sand dunes, particularly in the Khor al Adaid region, also known as the “Inland Sea”.
To the north and west, the terrain is more rocky and includes limestone formations.
Qatar has wadis (valleys) that are dry most of the time but can turn into rivers during the rainy season.
Salt flats (sabkhas) are a notable geographical feature, formed by high evaporation rates that leave behind salt deposits.
The country also boasts a number of islands in the surrounding waters, including the Hawar Archipelago, Halul, and Al Bashiria.
Qataris, or native Qataris, constitute a small portion of the population, making up about one-ninth of the total population.
The majority of Qatar’s residents are foreign workers, with large communities from India, Pakistan, and Iran. These workers play a vital role in the country’s economy.
Bedouin nomads originally settled the land, but modern Qatari citizens have moved away from a nomadic lifestyle.
Qatar’s economy is highly reliant on its vast natural resources, specifically oil and natural gas.
The country has the third-largest reserves of liquefied natural gas (LNG) in the world.
Oil and gas industries contribute to more than 90% of Qatar’s annual exports, making it one of the wealthiest nations in terms of per capita income.
Doha, the capital, serves as a regional financial hub, home to numerous international banks, financial institutions, and investment firms.
Qatar has been ruled by the House of Thani family since 1868.
It was a British protectorate from 1916 and became fully independent in 1971.
Qatar has made significant strides on the global diplomatic front. It plays a crucial role in Middle Eastern and global geopolitics, due to its financial strength, strategic location, and active participation in regional conflicts, diplomatic efforts, and humanitarian initiatives. The country has also made its mark in sports, particularly with the FIFA World Cup 2022, held in Doha, which showcased Qatar's ambition to elevate its global presence.
The United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) is a key inter-governmental body within the United Nations system. It was created to address and promote the protection of human rights globally.
Date of Creation: The UNHRC was established on 15 March 2006, replacing the Commission on Human Rights.
Mandate:
To promote universal respect for the protection of all human rights and fundamental freedoms for everyone.
It aims to address situations of human rights violations, including gross and systematic violations, and make recommendations based on these issues.
The Council works towards addressing human rights challenges and ensuring justice for affected individuals globally.
Member States: The Council is made up of 47 Member States. These members are elected by the UN General Assembly through a direct and secret ballot.
Geographical Distribution: Membership is based on equitable geographical distribution, ensuring representation from all regions of the world.
Term and Re-election:
Members serve a three-year term.
After serving two consecutive terms, countries are not eligible for immediate re-election.
Investigating Human Rights Violations:
The UNHRC investigates allegations of human rights breaches across UN member states. It has a mandate to address both systematic and gross violations.
Human Rights Advocacy:
It addresses a wide array of significant human rights issues, including:
Freedom of expression
Women’s rights
LGBT rights
Racial and ethnic minority rights
Collaboration with OHCHR:
The UNHRC works in close coordination with the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), which supports its operations, provides expertise, and ensures effective monitoring of human rights situations globally.
Universal Periodic Review (UPR):
One of the Council’s key functions is to conduct the Universal Periodic Review (UPR), where the human rights situation in all UN member states is assessed periodically. This allows the international community to review and recommend improvements.
Special Sessions:
The Council can call special sessions to address urgent human rights issues or crises around the world, such as humanitarian emergencies or conflicts.
Adoption of Resolutions and Recommendations:
The UNHRC adopts resolutions and recommendations that guide countries in improving their human rights practices. These resolutions may include measures or sanctions to address violations.
Recent research has highlighted a concerning connection between waning immunity against Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) and an increased risk of more severe dengue infections.
Japanese Encephalitis (JE) is a viral zoonotic disease, meaning it is transmitted from animals to humans. The disease is caused by the Japanese Encephalitis virus (JEV), a flavivirus. JEV is in the same virus family as dengue, yellow fever, and West Nile virus.
Mosquito-borne: The primary vector for JEV is the Culex mosquito, specifically from the Vishnui group. These mosquitoes are typically found in rural regions of Asia, especially during the monsoon season when mosquito breeding conditions are optimal.
No Human-to-Human Transmission: JEV is not transmitted from person to person. Humans are infected when bitten by an infected mosquito.
Mild cases: Many infected individuals may have no symptoms or only mild ones.
Severe cases: In more severe instances, JE affects the brain, causing:
Fever
Headache
Vomiting
Neurological symptoms such as:
Confusion
Seizures
Paralysis
Severe JE can lead to permanent brain damage or even death.
Prevention:
Vaccination: The most effective way to prevent JE, especially in endemic regions. The vaccine has been included in India's Universal Immunization Programme since 2013, typically requiring two doses for full protection.
Mosquito Control: In areas with high transmission, efforts are made to control mosquito populations, such as through insecticides and draining of mosquito breeding sites.
Treatment:
No Specific Antiviral Treatment: There is no direct antiviral treatment for JE.
Supportive Care: Patients with JE receive supportive treatment aimed at stabilizing their condition and relieving symptoms, such as anti-seizure medications and fluid management.
Interaction with Dengue: The study suggests that waning immunity against JE could increase susceptibility to severe forms of dengue, a related mosquito-borne disease. This interaction underscores the complex relationships between different viral infections that can complicate diagnosis and treatment.
Endemic Areas: JE is most prevalent in rural areas of Asia, particularly in India, China, Nepal, Indonesia, and parts of Southeast Asia. It often occurs in areas where mosquito breeding is rampant during the monsoon season.
Ladakh has seen renewed protests and demands for statehood and Sixth Schedule status, particularly from its predominantly tribal population. These demands have emerged following the region’s reorganization in 2019, when Ladakh was made a Union Territory (UT) without a legislature. This shift has raised concerns about local autonomy, representation, and tribal rights, making the call for the Sixth Schedule more relevant than ever.
The Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution (Articles 244(2) and 275(1)) was created to protect the tribal populations and empower them with local self-governance. It was based on the Bardoloi Committee’s recommendations and is intended to safeguard tribal identity, land, and cultural practices in regions with significant tribal populations.
The Sixth Schedule allows the creation of Autonomous District Councils (ADCs) and Autonomous Regional Councils (ARCs) for tribal areas. These councils can exercise substantial self-rule in managing local governance and development.
Governor’s Role: The Governor can establish these councils and divide an autonomous district into regions based on tribal distribution.
Membership and Structure: An ADC typically has up to 30 members (26 elected, 4 nominated by the Governor), and they serve a five-year term. In some cases, the number of members can be higher, like in the Bodoland Territorial Council in Assam, which has more than 40 members.
Legislative Powers: The councils can legislate on subjects like land, forests, agriculture, marriage and inheritance, and more, though all laws require the Governor’s assent.
Judicial Powers: They can establish courts to address issues within the tribal community, except for serious crimes.
Executive Powers: Councils can manage infrastructure, education, healthcare, and more within their jurisdiction.
Financial Powers: They can levy taxes, tolls, and land revenue, contributing to local governance and development.
Reorganization of 2019: With Ladakh’s transition into a Union Territory, it no longer has a legislative assembly, which previously enabled greater local representation. This shift has led to a bureaucratic-led decision-making process, increasing concerns of outsider dominance and a growing sense of disconnection from governance in Ladakh.
Over 97% of Ladakh’s population is tribal. The region's unique culture and language face potential dilution due to changes in domicile policies and concerns over outsider settlement. Tribals fear losing control over land ownership, jobs, and demographic changes as more people from outside Ladakh settle in the region.
Ladakh has two Hill Development Councils (Leh and Kargil), but these councils have limited powers, mostly confined to local taxation and land allotment. They lack the authority to address broader issues like environmental concerns, cultural preservation, and economic development that are central to Ladakh’s future.
Ladakh's fragile ecosystem faces increasing pressure due to mass tourism and large-scale infrastructure projects. The implementation of the Sixth Schedule could provide local councils with the powers to regulate development more effectively, ensuring sustainable growth and protecting traditional land-use practices.
Ladakh’s unemployment rate, especially among graduates, is high (~26.5%), exacerbating frustration. Lack of local job creation and limited development opportunities in the public and private sectors are contributing factors. A more empowered council under the Sixth Schedule could help tailor economic policies to local needs, creating employment and improving livelihoods.
The Sixth Schedule was originally intended for northeastern tribal regions. Extending this provision to Ladakh would require a constitutional amendment and could set a precedent for other tribal areas seeking similar status.
Ladakh is a border region, and any move toward increased autonomy could complicate coordination on security and administrative matters, especially given the strategic importance of the region in India's national defense.
Autonomous councils often depend on state funds, leading to potential financial dependency. Political interference can also affect the functioning of these councils, limiting their effectiveness in governance.
Striking the right balance between local autonomy and national development goals, such as infrastructure and tourism, will be a challenge. Overzealous autonomy could delay projects crucial to Ladakh’s development, while overly centralized control might disregard the region’s unique needs.
If Ladakh receives Sixth Schedule status, it could lead to similar demands from other tribal regions across the country, adding complexity to India’s national policy and potentially challenging the uniformity of governance.
In response to local demands, the government has mandated that 85% of government jobs in Ladakh are reserved for locals under the Domicile Certificate Rules (2025), ensuring employment opportunities for the region’s residents.
The Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Councils (LAHDCs) will see one-third of seats reserved for women, ensuring greater gender representation in local governance, in line with the 73rd Amendment.
The government has designated multiple languages (English, Hindi, Urdu, Bhoti, Purgi, Shina, Brokskat, Balti, and Ladakhi) as official languages, aiming to preserve and promote Ladakh’s rich linguistic heritage.
Empower the LAHDCs to regulate renewable energy projects, water resources, and eco-sensitive tourism, ensuring that development is balanced with environmental sustainability.
Maintain central oversight on border management, defense, and strategic infrastructure while empowering local councils to handle day-to-day governance.
Grant the Hill Councils exclusive rights to manage valuable natural resources such as salt, medicinal plants, sand, and minerals, with revenue from these resources used to fund local development and environmental conservation efforts.
Set up local innovation centers focusing on renewable energy, sustainable tourism, and handicrafts, providing employment opportunities for the youth while preserving Ladakh’s cultural heritage.
Ladakh’s demand for Sixth Schedule status reflects a delicate balance between autonomy, identity preservation, and national security. A tailored approach that grants greater autonomy to local councils while maintaining central oversight in strategic areas, such as defense and security, could be the key to addressing Ladakh’s unique challenges. With the right blend of empowerment and coordination, Ladakh can safeguard its culture, environment, and economic future without compromising on its security needs.
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We provide offline, online and recorded lectures in the same amount.
Every aspirant is unique and the mentoring is customised according to the strengths and weaknesses of the aspirant.
In every Lecture. Director Sir will provide conceptual understanding with around 800 Mindmaps.
We provide you the best and Comprehensive content which comes directly or indirectly in UPSC Exam.
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