The 2025 SCO Heads of State Summit was held in Tianjin, China, marking a significant moment for the organization’s expanding role on the global stage.

Key Highlights:

1. Terrorism:

   • The SCO strongly condemned all acts of terrorism, including the Pahalgam incident in India and other attacks in Pakistan.

   • A unified call was made for countries to stop cross-border terrorism.

2. Global Order & Trade:

   • The declaration rejected U.S. tariffs and sanctions, with President Xi Jinping criticizing "Cold War thinking".

   • A Global Governance Initiative was proposed to create a more inclusive and fair world order.

3. Membership Expansion:

   • Laos joined the SCO as a new partner.

   • The observer and dialogue partner categories were merged, increasing the SCO's strength to 27 countries, with 10 full members and 17 partners.

4. Economic Commitments:

   • Plans were announced for the establishment of an SCO Development Bank.

   • China committed a ¥2 billion grant in 2025 and pledged ¥10 billion in loans over the next three years to support development initiatives within the SCO.

5. Geopolitical Issues:

   • Gaza War: The SCO condemned civilian deaths and opposed Israel–U.S. strikes on Iran.

   • Afghanistan: The SCO called for the formation of an inclusive government in Afghanistan.

   • Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): All members, except India, expressed support for the initiative, highlighting India’s reluctance to endorse the BRI.

6. China’s Push for SCO Expansion:

   • The BeiDou satellite system (China's GPS alternative) was made available to all SCO members.

   • China pledged $1.4 billion in loans over three years to SCO members.

   • The SCO Development Bank was proposed to fund infrastructure and development projects.

7. SCO+ Format:

   • China also chaired the SCO+ Summit, which expanded the organization’s reach by including member states, observers, dialogue partners, and international organizations.

   • This indicates the SCO’s growing influence in global governance.

8. UN Reform:

   • The SCO called for reforms to the United Nations, focusing on expanding the representation of developing countries in key governing bodies.

About Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)

The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) is a regional intergovernmental body founded on 15 June 2001 in Shanghai, China. Initially created by Kazakhstan, China, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan, the organization evolved from the earlier framework known as the Shanghai Five.

SCO Charter and Evolution

• SCO Charter: In 2002, member states adopted the SCO Charter during a meeting in St. Petersburg, Russia. The Charter became effective on 19 September 2003 and serves as the constitutional framework of the SCO.

• Evolution: Over time, the SCO has expanded significantly:

  • In 2017, India and Pakistan became full members.

  • Iran joined in 2023, followed by Belarus in 2024, further enhancing the SCO’s geopolitical significance across East Asia, South Asia, Central Asia, and parts of the Middle East.

Principles and Structure

• Shanghai Spirit: The SCO emphasizes the "Shanghai Spirit", which promotes mutual trust, mutual benefit, equality, respect for cultural diversity, and the pursuit of common development.

• Official Language: The official working languages of the SCO Secretariat are Russian and Chinese.

• Headquarters: The permanent secretariat is located in Beijing, China. The Executive Committee of the Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS), focused on security cooperation, is located in Tashkent, Uzbekistan.

Objectives of the SCO

The SCO's objectives are broad and cover several areas of cooperation:

1. Regional Trust and Friendship:

   • Foster mutual confidence and good-neighborly relations among all member states for a stable and harmonious regional environment.

2. Comprehensive Cooperation:

   • Encourage collaboration across various fields including politics, trade, economy, science, technology, culture, education, energy, transport, tourism, and environmental protection.

3. Peace and Stability:

   • Work collectively to safeguard regional peace and enhance security mechanisms to maintain long-term stability within Eurasia.

4. Fair Global Order:

   • Advocate for a more democratic and balanced international political and economic system that reflects the interests of developing nations and promotes multipolarity.

SCO Members and Partners

As of August 2025, the SCO includes:

• 10 Permanent Members: These include the founding members and later additions like India, Pakistan, Iran, and Belarus.

• 17 SCO Partners: The SCO now includes countries under the new merged category of “SCO Partners”. For example, Laos became a new partner in 2025. The category includes nations previously in the observer and dialogue partner categories.

SCO Organizational Structure

The SCO's organizational framework is designed to allow for long-term functioning and strategic decision-making:

1. Council of Heads of State:

   • The highest decision-making body of the SCO, comprising the heads of state of all member countries.

   • It sets the strategic direction of the organization and meets annually.

2. Council of Heads of Government:

   • The second-highest body that focuses on multilateral cooperation in various sectors.

   • It holds annual summits to discuss economic, trade, and security issues.

3. Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs:

   • Comprises the foreign ministers of all member countries.

   • Responsible for coordinating the SCO's foreign policy.

4. Council of National Coordinators:

   • Coordinates and manages the current activities of the SCO.

   • It ensures that preparations for the major meetings are in place.

5. Secretariat:

   • The administrative arm of the SCO.

   • Based in Beijing, the Secretary-General heads the Secretariat and coordinates the implementation of decisions made by the SCO bodies.

6. Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS):

   • Responsible for coordinating efforts to combat terrorism, separatism, and extremism.

   • The headquarters is located in Tashkent, Uzbekistan.

7. SCO Business Council:

   • A platform for business representatives from member countries.

   • Promotes economic cooperation and business investments among SCO members.

8. SCO Interbank Consortium:

   • A network of banks that supports financial cooperation and promotes sustainable development and economic integration.

Significance of the SCO:

The SCO has evolved into a global platform with significant geopolitical, economic, and strategic importance.

1. Expanding Global Influence:

   • The SCO now represents 23% of global GDP and 42% of the world's population, holding potential to reshape multilateralism and global governance.

2. Alternative to Western Institutions:

   • The SCO offers a non-Western model of cooperation, providing countries a platform outside of Western-led structures.

   • The interest of Turkey (a NATO member) in full membership underscores the growing importance of the SCO.

3. Regional Stability and Security:

   • The SCO has played a crucial role in Afghanistan post-NATO withdrawal, maintaining regional stability through its Afghanistan Contact Group (ACG).

4. Energy Cooperation:

   • With key energy producers like Russia, Kazakhstan, and Iran, and consumers like China and India, the SCO fosters energy security and promotes joint energy projects.

5. Cultural and People-to-People Ties:

   • The SCO promotes educational exchanges, cultural diplomacy, and youth cooperation, enhancing regional identity and soft power.

6. Voice for the Global South:

   • By challenging unilateralism and sanctions, the SCO advocates reforms in global institutions and positions itself as a representative of emerging economies.

7. Counter-Terrorism Cooperation:

   • Through its Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS), the SCO coordinates intelligence sharing and counter-terrorism measures.

8. Strategic Balance in Global Politics:

   • For China, the SCO is a vehicle to project leadership and represent the Global South.

   • For Russia, it serves as a forum to counter Western narratives and promote a multipolar world.

9. Boosting Connectivity in Eurasia:

   • The SCO supports infrastructure projects like the INSTC and Chabahar Port, promoting economic integration in Eurasia.

Challenges Faced by the SCO:

1. Shifting from Asia-Centric Focus:

   • The inclusion of members like Belarus has increased the SCO’s global visibility but risked fragmenting its focus from Central Asia.

   • Overexpansion may lead to the formation of smaller sub-groupings that might dilute the SCO’s effectiveness.

2. Tool for Chinese Geopolitical Narratives:

   • China often leverages the SCO to advance its geopolitical narratives, including pushing the BRI, which can overshadow the interests of other members.

3. Diverse and Conflicting Interests:

   • The SCO is challenged by stark differences among its members. For example, India consistently calls out Pakistan for terrorism, while China diplomatically shields Islamabad, leading to deadlocks on security cooperation.

4. External Perceptions:

   • Western powers perceive the SCO as an anti-West bloc, limiting its engagement with broader international organizations and reducing its scope for collaboration on global issues.

Relevance of the SCO for India:

India’s involvement in the SCO is strategically significant:

1. Countering Terrorism:

   • The SCO provides India a platform to highlight concerns about cross-border terrorism, particularly related to Pakistan.

2. Access to Central Asia:

   • The SCO strengthens India’s connectivity with Central Asian countries, which is vital for trade, energy, and infrastructure initiatives like INSTC and Chabahar Port.

3. Balancing China and Russia:

   • The SCO allows India to engage with both China and Russia, maintaining strategic autonomy and balancing China’s influence in Eurasia.

4. Strategic Presence in Eurasia:

   • As an SCO member, India ensures its involvement in regional decision-making on issues like Afghanistan, security, and economic cooperation.

5. Shaping the Regional Agenda:

   • India can influence the SCO agenda, promoting sustainable development, digital innovation, and inclusive connectivity instead of just focusing on Chinese-driven projects like the BRI.

Way Forward

1. Balanced Expansion:

   • The SCO should limit enlargement to maintain its Central Asia-centric focus, ensuring new members add strategic value.

2. Strengthen Institutional Capacity:

   • The SCO needs to develop better mechanisms for implementation and monitoring of initiatives to ensure that its declarations lead to tangible outcomes.

3. Respect for Diverse Interests:

   • The organization should focus on issue-based cooperation (e.g., terrorism, energy, connectivity) where consensus is achievable, rather than trying to force uniformity across all domains.

4. Promote Inclusive Connectivity:

   • SCO members should push for projects like INSTC and Chabahar Port that provide alternatives to the BRI, reducing dependency on any one country and respecting all members' sensitivities.

The SCO's 2025 Summit underscores its growing importance in global governance and its evolving role as a counterbalance to Western-led international structures. However, it also faces challenges in aligning the diverse interests of its expanding membership

Nankana Sahib is one of the most significant and revered cities for the Sikh community. It holds immense historical and spiritual value as it is the birthplace of Guru Nanak Dev Ji, the founder of Sikhism.

Key Facts about Nankana Sahib:

• Location: Nankana Sahib is located in the Punjab province of Pakistan, approximately 75 kilometers west of Lahore. The city is historically tied to the Sikh faith and remains a major pilgrimage site for Sikhs worldwide.

• Historical Background:

  • Originally known as Rai-Bhoi-Di Talwandi, the city was renamed Nankana Sahib by Rai Bhullar Bhatti, the grandson of the founder Rai Bhoi, in honor of the birth of Guru Nanak.

  • Guru Nanak spent his early years here, from where he began his divine calling and spiritual journey that eventually led to the establishment of Sikhism.

• Gurdwara Janam Asthan:

  • The Gurdwara Janam Asthan (also known as Nankana Sahib Gurdwara) is the central shrine located at the site where Guru Nanak is believed to have been born in 1469.

  • The shrine was constructed by Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the leader of the Sikh Empire, after he visited the site in 1818-19 while returning from the Battle of Multan. His visit marked the beginning of efforts to preserve and promote the religious significance of Nankana Sahib.

• Other Important Shrines:

  • In addition to Gurdwara Janam Asthan, Nankana Sahib is home to several other shrines that commemorate key events in the life of Guru Nanak:

    • Gurdwara Patti Sahib: Where Guru Nanak is said to have received his divine call.

    • Gurdwara Bal Leela: Associated with Guru Nanak’s childhood.

    • Gurdwara Mal Ji Sahib: Linked to significant teachings of Guru Nanak.

    • Gurdwara Kiara Sahib: Where Guru Nanak performed a miracle.

    • Gurdwara Tambu Sahib: Remains an important site.

  • Gurdwaras dedicated to other Gurus, such as Guru Arjan (5th Guru) and Guru Hargobind (6th Guru), are also found here. Guru Hargobind visited Nankana Sahib in 1621-22 and paid homage to the site.

Recent Developments:

There has been significant political and religious discourse surrounding access to Nankana Sahib. Recently, political parties and Sikh organizations have urged the Indian government to reconsider its decision to restrict processing applications for pilgrimages to Nankana Sahib, especially during important religious events like the birth anniversary of Guru Nanak Dev. The Indian government had asked state governments not to process such applications, raising concerns among Sikh bodies about the limitations being imposed on religious freedom and pilgrimage rights.

Importance of Nankana Sahib:

1. Religious Significance: For Sikhs, Nankana Sahib is the holiest site, akin to Mecca for Muslims or Jerusalem for Jews and Christians. It is where the foundation of Sikhism was laid, and it continues to be a place of immense spiritual importance.

2. Cultural and Historical Value: Nankana Sahib is not just a place of worship, but also a center for the preservation of Sikh culture, history, and teachings. It attracts millions of pilgrims annually who come to celebrate Gurpurabs (religious festivals) and to seek blessings.

3. Symbol of Sikh-Pakistan Relations: Nankana Sahib holds a special place in the cultural and historical ties between India and Pakistan, as it is a symbol of the shared heritage of the two countries. The site has been a focal point of Sikh pilgrimage and interfaith dialogue.

Conclusion:

Nankana Sahib is a deeply significant spiritual landmark for Sikhs and represents not just the birthplace of Guru Nanak Dev Ji, but also the core values of unity, peace, and spiritual equality that he espoused. Despite the political challenges, its sacredness continues to inspire millions of Sikhs around the world. The ongoing debates about access to Nankana Sahib highlight the importance of preserving religious freedoms and pilgrimage rights.

Willingdon Island is a prominent man-made island in the Kochi area of Kerala, India, and is regarded as one of the most beautiful locations in the region. It holds a special place in both historical and strategic contexts.

Key Features of Willingdon Island

• Man-Made Island: Willingdon Island was created by the British during the colonial era and is named after Lord Willingdon, the 22nd Viceroy and Governor-General of India (1931–1936).

• Strategic Significance: The island serves as a hub for various important institutions and facilities:

  • Kochi Naval Base: A key naval base of the Indian Navy, strategically important for the country's defense.

  • Central Institute of Fisheries Technology (CIFT): Focuses on research and development in the field of fisheries and aquaculture.

  • Port of Kochi: One of the major ports on the west coast of India, handling a significant volume of international trade.

• Connectivity: Willingdon Island is connected to the mainland by the Venduruthy Bridge, which facilitates easy access for both people and goods between the island and Kochi.

Historical Context: Lord Willingdon (1931–1936)

Lord Willingdon was the 22nd Viceroy and Governor-General of India, serving from 1931 to 1936. His tenure was marked by several key events that shaped the political landscape of India during British rule.

Major Events During His Tenure:

• Government of India Act, 1935:

  • The Government of India Act was one of the most significant pieces of legislation passed during British rule, which paved the way for the eventual creation of provincial autonomy in India.

  • It granted limited self-governance to Indians, though it still maintained British control over major areas like defense and foreign affairs.

• The Second Round Table Conference (1931):

  • Held in London, this conference included Mahatma Gandhi as the representative of the Indian National Congress.

  • The conference aimed to address constitutional reforms in India, though it did not yield a satisfactory solution for full self-rule.

• The Communal Award (1932):

  • British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald introduced the Communal Award in 1932, which provided separate electorates for different communities, including Muslims, Sikhs, and other minorities, causing division among the Indian population.

  • It was a controversial move, as it further entrenched communal identities rather than fostering unity.

• The Poona Pact (1932):

  • The Poona Pact was a historic agreement reached between Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar to address the issue of representation of backward classes in legislatures.

  • The pact provided for reserved seats for the depressed classes in the provincial legislatures but allowed them to elect their representatives from a common electoral roll.

• The Third Round Table Conference (1932):

  • This conference was intended to resolve constitutional issues but failed because neither Gandhi nor the Indian National Congress attended. This made the conference largely ineffective in pushing forward the cause of Indian self-rule.

Conclusion

Willingdon Island stands as both a testament to British-era engineering and a modern-day strategic hub in Kochi. Named after Lord Willingdon, its historical significance is tied to key events during British rule, including the Government of India Act, 1935, and the Second and Third Round Table Conferences. Today, it remains a crucial part of Kochi's economic and defense infrastructure, with a deep connection to both the past and the present

India's only mud volcano, located on Baratang Island in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, has erupted once again, drawing attention both for its unique geological phenomenon and its significance as a tourist destination.

About Baratang Island

• Location: Baratang Island is situated in the North and Middle Andaman district, approximately 150 km from Port Blair. It’s part of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, known for their rich biodiversity and unique ecosystems.

• Mud Volcano: The island is home to India’s only mud volcano, which makes it a popular tourist spot. This natural wonder has intrigued visitors due to its rare geological formations.

• Jarawa Tribe: Baratang Island is also inhabited by the Jarawa tribe, one of the indigenous tribes of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, known for their distinct cultural heritage and close connection with the environment.

What is a Mud Volcano?

Mud volcanoes are geological formations created when mud, water, and gases (mainly methane, and sometimes carbon dioxide or nitrogen) are forced to the surface from underground chambers. Unlike traditional volcanoes, mud volcanoes do not erupt lava but instead release mud slurries that can form cone-like structures.

Characteristics of Mud Volcanoes:

• Formation: Mud volcanoes are formed through tectonic activity, where pressure builds up and causes mud, water, and gas to be expelled through the earth’s crust.

• Size: These volcanoes can vary in size, ranging from 1 to 2 meters to 700 meters in height, and can span from 1 to 10 kilometers in width.

• Global Presence: Mud volcanoes exist not only on land but also beneath the sea, where they can form underwater banks and islands that alter coastal topography.

Mud Volcanoes Around the World

While rare in the Indian subcontinent, mud volcanoes are found in various parts of the world:

• Azerbaijan: Home to some of the largest mud volcanoes in the world.

• Italy: Features mud volcanoes, notably in the Campi Flegrei region near Naples.

• USA: In California, mud volcanoes are present in places like Mono Lake.

Conclusion

The mud volcano on Baratang Island continues to be a fascinating natural wonder that attracts both scientific study and tourism. As India’s only active mud volcano, it offers unique insights into the processes of the Earth’s surface and adds to the biodiversity and ecological uniqueness of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

India's Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) is on the verge of a historic milestone with the upcoming test of Dhvani, a next-generation hypersonic missile that is set to propel India into an elite group of military superpowers.

What is the Dhvani Missile?

The Dhvani is a hypersonic glide vehicle (HGV), a revolutionary weapon system that combines extreme speed with unmatched maneuverability. Hypersonic missiles like Dhvani are a game-changer in modern warfare due to their ability to travel at speeds of Mach 5 and beyond (over 6,000 km/h).

Key Features:

• Speed & Range: The Dhvani can reach speeds of over Mach 5 (around 7,400 km/h), making it one of the fastest missiles in the world. It has an estimated range of 6,000 to 10,000 kilometers.

• Flight Path: Unlike conventional cruise missiles that follow predictable flight paths, the Dhvani will be launched to extreme altitudes before gliding toward its target at hypersonic speeds. This unique ability makes it hard to detect and intercept, rendering existing missile defense systems largely ineffective.

• Targeting: The missile is capable of striking both land-based and maritime targets with exceptional precision.

Design & Technology:

• Blended Wing-Body Configuration: The missile features a sleek design, with a blended wing-body configuration. It is approximately 9 meters in length and 2.5 meters in width.

• Heat Protection System: One of the most impressive aspects of the missile is its advanced heat protection system. The missile utilizes ultra-high-temperature ceramic composites that can withstand temperatures of 2,000-3,000°C during atmospheric reentry, ensuring it can survive the intense heat generated during hypersonic flight.

• Stealth Capabilities: The missile's stealth-optimized geometry, with angled surfaces and smooth contours, greatly reduces its radar cross-section, making it nearly invisible to enemy tracking systems. This enhances its effectiveness in penetrating advanced missile defense systems.

Why is Dhvani So Significant?

The Dhvani missile is a game-changing technology that represents a huge leap in India’s defense capabilities.

1. Speed & Maneuverability: Its ability to travel at hypersonic speeds and maneuver during flight makes it almost impossible to intercept with current defense systems. Most modern missile defense technologies are designed to counter missiles that follow predictable flight paths, but Dhvani’s ability to change course at hypersonic speeds renders these systems obsolete.

2. Strategic Impact: The missile's long range (6,000-10,000 km) and precision targeting make it an incredibly versatile weapon, capable of striking critical military infrastructure, naval assets, and other strategic targets with pinpoint accuracy.

3. Stealth Capabilities: The missile's stealth design significantly reduces the chances of being tracked or intercepted by enemy radar, providing a major strategic advantage in combat situations.

4. Technological Advancement: The Dhvani missile places India at the forefront of hypersonic missile technology, joining a select group of nations with such advanced capabilities. This development strengthens India’s position as a military superpower.

Global Context of Hypersonic Missiles

The hypersonic missile race is becoming a defining feature of modern military development, with countries like the US, China, and Russia also investing heavily in similar technologies.

• China: China has made significant strides in hypersonic weapons, with its DF-ZF hypersonic glide vehicle being one of the most notable examples.

• Russia: Russia’s Avangard hypersonic missile system is designed to travel at speeds of up to Mach 27, far beyond the speed of most missile systems.

• US: The US has also made strides in hypersonic research, with various military programs aimed at developing hypersonic glide vehicles and cruise missiles.

With the successful development and testing of Dhvani, India is positioning itself as a global leader in hypersonic technology, enhancing its defense capabilities and asserting its influence on the global stage.

Challenges

Despite its promise, there are several challenges that India faces in the development and deployment of hypersonic weapons:

• Technological Hurdles: Developing reliable materials and heat shields that can withstand the extreme conditions during hypersonic flight is a major technological challenge.

• Global Competition: India faces strong competition from other military superpowers that are also racing to develop cutting-edge hypersonic missile systems.

• Defense Systems: The development of hypersonic missile defense systems capable of countering missiles like Dhvani will likely become a focal point for other nations, driving further arms development in this domain.

Conclusion

The Dhvani missile is set to be a game-changer for India, significantly enhancing its defensive and offensive military capabilities. Its unique combination of speed, maneuverability, precision targeting, and stealth makes it one of the most advanced weapons in the world.

India's Institute for Plasma Research (IPR) in Gandhinagar has recently proposed a comprehensive roadmap for the development of fusion power, marking a significant leap towards harnessing fusion energy as a potential solution to the country's growing energy needs.

The central element of this roadmap is the development of the Steady-state Superconducting Tokamak-Bharat (SST-Bharat) reactor, a critical next step in India's long-term energy strategy. This development holds the promise of contributing significantly to India’s energy mix in the future, and could position the country as a global leader in clean energy technologies.

What is Fusion Power?

Fusion is the process where two light atoms, usually hydrogen isotopes, come together to form a heavier atom, releasing vast amounts of energy. This process is the same one that powers the Sun and other stars.

• Fusion in the Sun: In the Sun, hydrogen nuclei fuse to form helium, releasing energy in the form of light and heat.

• Energy Release: The energy comes from the mass defect — the mass of the resulting atom is slightly less than the sum of the masses of the two original atoms. According to Einstein's theory of special relativity (E=mc²), this mass is converted into energy.

Conditions for Fusion:

• High Temperature: Around 100 million°C.

• High Pressure: To bring atomic nuclei close enough to fuse.

• Plasma State: The material is in a high-energy state where atoms break into ions and electrons.

Fusion vs. Fission:

• Fission splits heavy atoms like uranium into smaller nuclei, releasing energy, while fusion combines light atoms to release energy.

• Fusion is seen as a cleaner alternative, producing less radioactive waste and offering greater sustainability.

India’s Fusion Roadmap

India’s journey towards fusion energy is advancing, with the SST-Bharat reactor set to be a key player. Here's a look at the current capabilities and future goals:

Current Fusion Capabilities:

• India’s Steady State Superconducting Tokamak (SST-1) at IPR has already achieved plasma confinement for 650 milliseconds. This is a significant achievement, though SST-1 is primarily an experimental device, not designed for electricity generation.

• International Collaboration: India is an active participant in the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) project in France, aiming to achieve a Q value of 10 (meaning it produces 10 times the energy it consumes).

SST-Bharat Vision:

• The SST-Bharat reactor will aim to be a fusion-fission hybrid reactor with a target output of 130 MW and a Q value of 5 in its early stages.

• A full-scale demonstration reactor is planned to be commissioned by 2060, with an ambitious target of 250 MW output and a Q value of 20, which would mark a breakthrough in sustainable fusion power generation.

Key Technological Advancements:

• Digital Twins: Virtual replicas of tokamaks to simulate and test design conditions.

• Machine Learning: AI and machine learning will help predict and manage plasma behavior for better containment.

• Radiation-Resistant Materials: Research is focused on developing materials that can withstand extreme radiation inside fusion reactors.

• Superconducting Magnets: High-performance superconducting magnets will be used to create stronger magnetic fields, crucial for plasma confinement.

Global Developments in Fusion Power:

• United Kingdom: The UK STEP programme aims to prototype a fusion power plant by 2040.

• United States: Private companies claim they will deliver grid-connected fusion power by the 2030s.

• China: The Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) has already set records for plasma holding duration (1,066 seconds).

Challenges for India’s Fusion Roadmap:

India’s roadmap faces several challenges:

• High Costs: Fusion research requires significant investment in advanced technology, infrastructure, and reactors.

• Long Development Timeline: India’s target of 2060 for a fusion reactor is slower than global efforts, especially compared to China and the US, which are progressing at a faster pace.

• Limited Private Sector Involvement: India's private sector is less involved in fusion research, unlike in the US and Europe, where private companies are key players.

• Technological Hurdles: Key challenges include plasma containment, achieving a positive Q value, and developing radiation-resistant materials.

• Competition with Other Energy Sources: Fusion will compete with solar, wind, and nuclear fission, all of which are rapidly advancing technologies.

• Uncertain Commercial Viability: Even if fusion succeeds, its cost-effectiveness compared to existing energy sources remains uncertain.

Ensuring Strategic Gains from Fusion Research:

India can take several steps to maximize the benefits of its fusion R&D:

• Policy and Funding Support: Providing long-term, mission-mode funding, similar to India's space and nuclear fission programs (e.g., ISRO).

• Private Sector Partnerships: Encouraging the private sector, especially in AI, advanced materials, and digital simulations, to drive innovation.

• Global Collaborations: Expanding collaborations beyond ITER, fostering bilateral partnerships with fusion labs in the US, UK, and the EU.

• Realistic Targeting: Viewing fusion as a long-term R&D frontier rather than a near-term energy solution.

• Leveraging Fusion R&D: Using fusion research to enhance India's capabilities in key areas like superconducting materials, radiation shielding, and plasma control.

Conclusion

India’s fusion power roadmap is both ambitious and strategic, with SST-Bharat serving as a critical milestone in achieving a clean energy future. While challenges exist, India’s investment in fusion research can yield substantial technological, economic, and strategic benefits, especially as the global demand for clean energy continues to grow. By focusing on innovation, collaboration, and long-term planning, India is positioning itself at the forefront of the global fusion energy race

Scientists at the CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) have made a significant discovery regarding how white blood cells can adapt their internal skeletons to better combat pathogens. This discovery is an important advancement in understanding how the body’s immune cells respond to infections at the cellular level.

About the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB)

The CCMB is one of India’s leading research institutions, focused on frontier areas of modern biology.

Mission and Objectives:

• Primary Mission: To conduct high-quality basic research and provide training in the cutting-edge fields of modern biology.

• National Role: Promoting centralized national facilities for advanced techniques in biology, particularly in interdisciplinary areas.

• Global Recognition: CCMB is regarded as a global leader in cellular and molecular research.

History and Establishment:

• Established in 1977, CCMB is located in Hyderabad, Telangana, and operates under the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), which is part of India’s Ministry of Science and Technology.

• Since its inception, it has made pioneering contributions to understanding the molecular mechanisms that govern biological systems.

Key Research Areas:

• Genetics

• Biotechnology

• Bioinformatics

• Immunology

• Molecular Medicine

• Proteomics

• Cellular Mechanisms

These areas are explored with a focus on both fundamental research and translational research, addressing real-world problems in medicine, disease management, agricultural improvement, and environmental sustainability.

State-of-the-Art Facilities:

CCMB houses cutting-edge research facilities, including:

• A high-throughput genomics facility

• A bioinformatics centre

These facilities help researchers perform advanced studies in genomics and other areas of molecular biology.

Training and Collaboration:

• The institution offers training programs and workshops for students and researchers.

• CCMB collaborates extensively with national and international institutions, fostering a global exchange of knowledge and research advancements.

International Recognition:

• CCMB is designated as a "Center of Excellence" by the Global Molecular and Cell Biology Network under UNESCO.

Significance of Recent Discovery:

The discovery by CCMB scientists on how white blood cells can adapt their internal skeletons (the cytoskeleton) to fight pathogens offers new insights into the immune response. White blood cells, like neutrophils and macrophages, are crucial in fighting infections. The ability of these cells to reorganize their cytoskeleton in response to pathogens can help improve immune defense strategies and may lead to better therapeutic approaches for diseases that impair immune function.

The Supreme Court of India recently ruled that a State Government cannot invoke the doctrine of escheat under Section 29 of the Hindu Succession Act once a Hindu male has executed a Will that has been declared valid and has been granted probate by a court. This ruling clarifies the legal implications of escheat in the presence of a valid will.

About the Doctrine of Escheat

The doctrine of escheat is a significant legal principle ensuring that no property remains without ownership. If the original owner dies without legal heirs or fails to create a Will, the property reverts to the State.

Key Situations Where Escheat Applies:

1. Intestate Succession: When a person dies without a will (intestate) and without legal heirs, the property escheats to the state.

2. Unclaimed Property: When property is unclaimed or abandoned for a specific period, it can also escheat to the state.

The primary goal of escheat is to ensure that property does not remain ownerless. In the absence of heirs, the government assumes ownership, thereby preventing the property from being misused or left in legal limbo.

Historical Origins of Escheat

The doctrine of escheat has its roots in medieval Europe during the feudal system. Here's a quick look at its evolution:

• The term "escheat" comes from the Old French word "eschete," meaning "to fall to."

• Under feudalism, land held by tenants would revert (or escheat) to the lord if the tenant died without heirs or was convicted of certain crimes, like treason.

• Over time, the concept evolved, and in modern legal systems, it is the state rather than the lord or monarch that assumes ownership of the land or property.

Escheat in Modern Legal Systems

In modern legal systems, escheat ensures that property is not left ownerless. It also serves as a mechanism for handling unclaimed assets.

• In India, Section 29 of the Hindu Succession Act, 1956 and Article 296 of the Indian Constitution govern the doctrine of escheat.

• These provisions specify the circumstances under which property escheats to the state. The state temporarily or permanently assumes control of unclaimed or abandoned property.

The Supreme Court ruling has reinforced that the doctrine of escheat is only applicable when a person dies intestate (without a will) and without any legal heirs. If there is a valid will that has been probated, the property must pass to the beneficiaries as per the testator's intent, without any interference from the state.

Implications of the Supreme Court Ruling

This ruling reaffirms the importance of testamentary freedom — that is, the right of individuals to decide the disposition of their property after death through a Will. If a person has executed a valid will and it has been probated, the estate must follow the testator’s wishes, and the state cannot assert any claim over the property.

Recently, the Indian government signed a contract with the International Seabed Authority to explore polymetallic sulphur nodules in the Carlsberg Ridge.

About Carlsberg Ridge

The Carlsberg Ridge is a mid-oceanic ridge located in the Indian Ocean. It is a divergent plate boundary, where tectonic plates are moving apart.

• Location: It extends from the triple junction of the African, Indian, and Australian tectonic plates, which is where it connects with the Mid-Indian Ridge. It runs northwest toward the Gulf of Aden.

• Geographic Separation: The ridge separates the Arabian Sea to the northeast from the Somali Basin to the southwest.

• Tectonic Boundary: It marks the boundary between the Somali Plate and the Indian Plate.

• Depth: The ridge has a mean depth between 6,000 to 12,000 feet (1,800 to 3,600 meters) below the sea surface, though some areas of the ridge rise to a mean elevation of about 7,000 feet (2,100 meters) above the seafloor.

• Geological Significance: The Carlsberg Ridge is the most prominent mid-ocean ridge segment in the western Indian Ocean and contains numerous earthquake epicenters.

• Connection with Other Geological Features: It turns westward around the island of Socotra and eventually links to the East African Rift System through the Gulf of Aden.

Polymetallic Sulphur Nodules

The exploration of polymetallic sulphur nodules in the Carlsberg Ridge is a significant development. These nodules are rich in precious metals such as nickel, copper, and cobalt, which are essential for various high-tech applications, including electric vehicle batteries and renewable energy systems.

The International Seabed Authority (ISA) governs the exploration and exploitation of these seabed resources in international waters. This agreement will enable India to explore these valuable mineral resources in the Indian Ocean.