International Snow Leopard Day is observed every year on 23rd October to raise awareness about snow leopard conservation and the challenges faced by this vulnerable species.

Origin

International Snow Leopard Day was established in 2013 after the adoption of the Bishkek Declaration in Kyrgyzstan. During this conference, 12 snow leopard range countries agreed to collaborate on conservation efforts and protect the species’ fragile habitat.

• UN Recognition: In 2024, the United Nations officially designated this day to promote cooperation for snow leopard conservation and the protection of their fragile mountain ecosystems.

India’s Campaign – #23for23:(2025 )

• Purpose: Raise awareness about snow leopard conservation.

• Initiated by: Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Program (GSLEP) and the Snow Leopard Trust.

• Concept: People dedicate 23 minutes of physical activity (like walking, running, or yoga) in honor of the snow leopard, symbolizing the global call to protect these “Ghosts of the Mountains.”

Countries Hosting Snow Leopards

Snow leopards are found across 12 countries:
Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.

Facts About Snow Leopards

About the Species

The snow leopard (Panthera uncia) is a medium-sized wild cat known for its elusive behaviour and remarkable ability to survive in extremely harsh, high-altitude environments. It is often referred to as the “ghost of the mountains” due to its camouflage and secretive nature.

Habitat

Snow leopards are native to the mountains of Central and South Asia. They inhabit elevations ranging from 9,800 to 17,000 feet, primarily across high mountain ranges, including the Himalayas.
The global population is estimated at 3,500–7,000 individuals in the wild.

Snow Leopard Adaptations and Physical Features

• Paws and Locomotion: Snow leopards have extra-large paws that act like natural snowshoes, preventing them from sinking into deep snow. Their strong, short front limbs and longer hind limbs enable them to leap up to 30 feet (10 meters) in a single jump, making them highly agile in steep, rocky terrain.

• Ears and Nasal Cavity: Their round, short ears help reduce heat loss in frigid environments. The wide, short nasal cavity warms incoming air before it reaches the lungs, supporting survival at high altitudes.

• Tail: The snow leopard’s extra-long tail aids in balance while navigating rugged landscapes and provides additional warmth when wrapped around the body during rest.

• Communication: Unlike other big cats, snow leopards cannot roar. They communicate through growls, hisses, meows, and a unique sound called a “chuff.”

• Taxonomic Relation: Although called a “leopard,” the snow leopard is more closely related to the tiger than to leopards, reflecting its unique evolutionary lineage among big cats.

Behaviour

Snow leopards are solitary animals and are most active during dawn and dusk (crepuscular).
They do not roar; instead, they communicate through growls, hisses, meows, and a distinctive sound known as a “chuff.”

Reproduction

Mating typically occurs between January and March. During this period, both males and females intensively mark their territories using scrapes, faeces, urine, and scent-sprays along their movement paths.

Ecological Importance

Snow leopards serve as top predators in high-altitude ecosystems and act as indicator species, meaning their presence reflects the health of the ecosystem. Their kills also support scavengers such as vultures and wolves, thus playing a vital role in maintaining ecological balance.

Snow Leopard Population Assessment

The Snow Leopard Population Assessment in India (SPAI) Program is a nationwide initiative to systematically assess the status and distribution of snow leopards in India. Here’s a detailed breakdown:

Key Points about SPAI:

• Coordinator: Wildlife Institute of India (WII) serves as the National Coordinator.

• Partners: Conducted with support from snow leopard range states and conservation organizations like the Nature Conservation Foundation (Mysuru) and WWF-India.

• Coverage: Over 70% of India’s potential snow leopard habitat was systematically surveyed.

• Timeline: The program was carried out from 2019 to 2023.

Methodology:

The SPAI used a two-step framework:

1. Distribution Assessment:

   • Snow leopard spatial distribution was assessed using an occupancy-based sampling approach.

   • This helped identify where snow leopards are likely to occur in the Himalayan range.

2. Abundance Estimation:

   • Snow leopard population abundance was estimated using camera traps in the stratified regions identified in the first step.

   • This provided actual population estimates for different areas.

Findings of SPAI:

• Total estimated population in India: 718 snow leopards in the wild.

• Range: Spread across two Union Territories and four Himalayan states.

• Significance: India may host 1/6th to 1/9th of the global snow leopard population.

• State/UT-wise estimates:

  • Ladakh: 477

  • Uttarakhand: 124

  • Himachal Pradesh: 51

  • Arunachal Pradesh: 36

  • Sikkim: 21

  • Jammu and Kashmir: 9

The Government of India recognises the snow leopard as a flagship species of the high-altitude Himalayas, highlighting its ecological importance.
Hemis National Park in Ladakh is often referred to as the “Snow Leopard Capital of the World.

Appearance

The African Penguin has a distinctive black stripe across its chest along with a unique pattern of black spots, which differ among individuals. It also possesses pink glands above its eyes that become darker pink as the penguin’s body temperature rises. Males are generally larger than females and have noticeably bigger beaks.

Habitat

This species is typically found within 40 kilometers of the shoreline. It comes ashore to occupy a range of coastal habitats where it breeds, molts, and rests.

Distribution

The African Penguin breeds along the African mainland, stretching from Hollams Bird Island in Namibia to Bird Island in Algoa Bay, South Africa.

Breeding Behavior

The species naturally nests in burrows dug into guano, which is the accumulated excrement of birds, bats, and seals. These guano burrows offer protection from the extreme heat of its coastal environment.

Lifespan

In the wild, the African Penguin has an average lifespan of approximately 20 years.

Diet

The penguin primarily feeds on pelagic schooling fish, with sardines and anchovies forming a major part of its diet.

Conservation Status

The African Penguin is currently classified as Endangered on the IUCN Red List.

Threats

The species faces significant threats due to global-warming-induced changes in both marine and atmospheric conditions. These shifts degrade its habitat and disrupt food availability, posing a major risk to its survival.

Emperor Penguin

Introduction

The Emperor Penguin is the tallest and heaviest living penguin species. It evolved approximately one million years ago and is remarkably well adapted to survive in one of the harshest environments on Earth.

Distribution

Emperor Penguins are found across the Antarctic continent as well as on several sub-Antarctic islands.

Breeding

During the breeding season, which lasts from April to November, colonies of Emperor Penguins occur between 66° and 78° south latitude along the Antarctic coastline.

Habitat

The Emperor Penguin is the most ice-adapted among all penguin species. It inhabits pack ice and the surrounding marine regions and spends its entire life on Antarctic ice or in the frigid waters that surround it.

Features of Emperor Penguins

Physical Appearance

Adult Emperor Penguins have a striking black-and-white body with prominent patches of orange and yellow on the head, neck, and upper breast.

Body Adaptations

They undergo rapid fluctuations in weight depending on whether they are breeding or feeding, with females generally weighing less than males.
To retain heat efficiently, they possess two layers of feathers, a substantial reserve of body fat, and proportionally smaller beaks and flippers compared to other penguin species. They also conserve warmth by huddling together in dense groups.

Diving Ability

Emperor Penguins are exceptional divers and can reach depths of about 550 metres (1,800 feet) in search of food, making them the deepest-diving birds in the world.

Lifespan

The average lifespan of an Emperor Penguin is between 15 and 20 years.

Conservation Status

According to the IUCN Red List, the Emperor Penguin is classified as Near Threatened.

Humboldt Penguin

Introduction

Chile has recently reclassified the Humboldt Penguin (Spheniscus humboldti) as Endangered, signalling increasing concern over the species’ rapid population decline along the Pacific coastline. This regional assessment reflects growing ecological pressures on the species.

Habitat Range

The Humboldt Penguin inhabits the coastal regions of Peru and Chile, particularly along the nutrient-rich Humboldt Current in the Pacific Ocean. Approximately 80% of the global population is found along Chile’s coastline, highlighting its critical role in the species’ survival.

Distinct Features

This penguin is easily identified by a white C-shaped band on the head, a black breast band, and a pink fleshy patch around the eyes. These features differentiate it from other species within the Spheniscus genus.

Diet

The Humboldt Penguin is carnivorous, feeding primarily on anchovies, sardines, herring, and a variety of small marine organisms.

Behaviour

The species typically nests in burrows, caves, or guano deposits. Unlike many other penguin species, it does not form large chick crèches, making offspring more vulnerable to environmental stressors and predators.

Conservation Status

Globally, the Humboldt Penguin is classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN and is listed under CITES Appendix I. Chile’s recent reclassification to Endangered reflects a more severe regional decline.

Threats

The population has been heavily impacted by multiple interacting threats, including El Niño events, commercial fishing pressure, habitat loss, pollution, avian influenza (bird flu), and climate change. These factors disrupt breeding success, reduce prey availability, and degrade the penguin’s coastal habitat.

Comparison Chart: African Penguin vs. Humboldt Penguin

Following a campaign led by a Hyderabad-based paediatrician, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) has prohibited food companies from using the term ‘Oral Rehydration Salts’ (ORS) on products that do not comply with WHO formulation standards.

The recent order also revokes all previous permissions allowing brands to use ‘ORS’ with disclaimers. This action targets sugar-rich beverages falsely marketed as ORS, ensuring that only scientifically compliant rehydration products can carry the label.

Oral Rehydration Salts (ORS)

About ORS

ORS is a scientifically formulated mixture of electrolytes and glucose designed to prevent and treat dehydration, particularly caused by diarrhoea, vomiting, or heat-related illness. It effectively restores the body’s lost fluids and salts.

WHO-Recommended Composition

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), one litre of ORS solution should contain:

• Sodium chloride: 2.6 g

• Potassium chloride: 1.5 g

• Sodium citrate: 2.9 g

• Dextrose (anhydrous glucose): 13.5 g

• Total osmolarity: 245 mOsm/L

This precise ratio enables optimal absorption of water and electrolytes through the intestines.

Mechanism of Action

ORS works via glucose-mediated sodium absorption in the intestinal wall. This process helps draw water back into the bloodstream, rapidly reversing dehydration.

FSSAI Clarification on Misleading Labelling

The FSSAI has clarified that using ‘ORS’ in any product name, including fruit-based or ready-to-drink beverages, is a violation of the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006.

Such labelling:

• Misleads consumers through false and deceptive claims.

• Breaches multiple provisions under food labelling regulations.

This step ensures that only genuine, WHO-compliant ORS products are marketed for rehydration purposes.

Seventeen foreign universities, primarily from the UK and Australia, have received approval to set up campuses in India under the UGC’s 2023 regulations. This initiative aligns with the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 and comes amid growing demand for quality higher education within India.

How India is Advancing Global Partnerships in Higher Education

NEP 2020 Vision

NEP 2020 is guided by the principles of Access, Equity, Quality, Affordability, and Accountability. It envisions India as a global education hub by allowing the top 100 global universities to operate in India. This policy promotes international collaboration, student and faculty mobility, and academic credit transfer, aiming to elevate the Indian education ecosystem to global standards.

UGC Regulations 2023

To implement NEP 2020’s vision, the UGC (Setting up and Operation of Campuses of Foreign Higher Educational Institutions in India) Regulations 2023 were enacted. These regulations allow top-ranked Foreign Higher Educational Institutions (FHEIs) to establish campuses in India.

Key points include:

• Eligible universities must be ranked within the top 500 QS World University Rankings.

• Campuses must maintain the same academic standards, curricula, and degree equivalence as their parent institutions abroad.

• Foreign universities are granted operational autonomy, including flexibility in faculty recruitment (Indian and foreign), and are not bound by Indian university fee caps.

Factors Driving Foreign Universities to India

1. Rising Demand for Quality Higher Education: Over half of India’s population is under 30, with a Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) below 30%, presenting a large untapped market. Rising incomes, English proficiency, and interest in global education make India attractive.

2. Supportive Policy Environment: NEP 2020 encourages internationalisation of education, while UGC 2023 provides a clear regulatory framework.

3. Declining Indian Students Abroad: Stricter immigration policies in countries like the UK, US, and Canada have reduced the number of Indian students going overseas.

4. Revenue Diversification: Foreign universities face stagnant domestic enrolments and declining public funding; India offers a strategic market for financial sustainability.

5. Strategic Global Partnerships: Indian campuses foster research collaboration, student exchange, and talent pipelines, exemplified by initiatives such as the UK–India Education and Research Initiative (UKIERI).

Implications of Internationalising Higher Education in India

1. Global Competitiveness: Foreign universities introduce global curricula, teaching standards, and quality assurance, elevating the Indian academic ecosystem.

2. Curbing Brain Drain: Highly skilled students may stay in India, reducing the annual outflow of billions of dollars spent on overseas education.

3. Systemic Improvement: Presence of foreign institutions encourages Indian universities to innovate, enhance quality, and adopt best governance practices.

4. Alignment with National Goals: Courses in AI, Data Science, and Finance will develop a workforce aligned with Make in India and Digital India initiatives.

5. Affordable International Degrees: Studying at a foreign university in India is significantly cheaper than overseas—for example, Southampton University’s 2026 undergraduate fees (Rs 13.86–23.10 lakh) are roughly half the cost of studying on-campus in the UK.

Key Challenges and Solutions

Conclusion

India’s framework for foreign universities, driven by NEP 2020 and UGC 2023, aims to transform higher education by improving quality, curbing brain drain, and enhancing global competitiveness. The success of this initiative depends on balancing foreign autonomy with national interest, ensuring affordability, and creating sustainable, mutually beneficial partnerships for long-term impact.