Context: India has seen significant success with the green revolution in maize production. This success has been primarily driven by the private sector. Over the past 20 years, maize production in India has more than tripled.

Historical context of Green Revolution

The Green Revolution in India began in the 1960s. To increase food production in the country.

Key method: Introduction of high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of crops, specifically: Rice and Wheat

This agricultural reform was indeed a significant event in India's history, aimed at addressing food security concerns.

Background:

India faced severe food shortages in the 1940s and 1950s. The country was heavily dependent on food imports and foreign aid.

Implementation:

1. Led by agricultural scientist M.S. Swaminathan, often called the "Father of Indian Green Revolution."
2. Involved the adoption of modern farming techniques and technologies.
3. Introduction of high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of seeds, particularly for wheat and rice.
4. Increased use of fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation.

Positive impacts:

• Dramatic increase in crop yields, especially wheat and rice.

• India achieved food self-sufficiency by the 1970s.

• Reduced dependence on food imports.

• Helped alleviate poverty and hunger.

• Boosted rural incomes and stimulated the rural economy.

Challenges and negative impacts:

• Environmental concerns due to increased use of chemicals and pesticides.

• Depletion of groundwater resources from intensive irrigation.

• Loss of biodiversity as farmers focused on a few high-yielding crop varieties.

• Widening economic disparity between farmers who could afford new technologies and those who couldn't.

• Soil degradation in some areas due to intensive farming practices.

Long-term effects:

• Transformation of India from a food-deficient country to a major agricultural exporter.

• Shift in dietary patterns with increased availability of cereals.

• Changes in cropping patterns and agricultural practices across the country.

• Ongoing debates about sustainable agriculture and the need for a "Second Green Revolution" focused on sustainability and equity.

Regional variations:

• The Green Revolution was most successful in northern states like Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh.

• Its impact was less pronounced in eastern and southern India

Maize cultivation in India:

India's global standing in maize production:

Maize production growth in India:

1. Significant increase between 1999-2000 and 2023-24

2. Annual production has more than tripled during this period

3. Average yields have increased from 1.8 tonnes per hectare to 3.3 tonnes per hectare

4. Ranks 4th in area under maize cultivation

5. Ranks 7th in total maize production

6. Represents approximately 4% of global maize area and 2% of global production

7. Grown primarily in two seasons: rainy (kharif) and winter (rabi)

8. Kharif maize accounts for about 83% of the total maize area

9. Rabi maize makes up the remaining 17%

This substantial growth in maize production and yield is indeed remarkable. It demonstrates a significant improvement in agricultural practices, likely including better seed varieties, improved farming techniques, and possibly increased use of fertilizers and irrigation.

Maize as a fuel and feed crop:

Industrial applications of maize:

New maize varieties:

1. The Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) has developed India's first "waxy" maize hybrid, which has high starch content and is better suited for ethanol production.

2. CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center) has established a maize doubled haploid (DH) facility in Kunigal, Karnataka, which produces genetically pure maize for breeding purposes.

3. Maize grains contain 68-72% starch and 1-3% other simple carbohydrates.

4. Starch from maize is used in various industries, including textile, paper, pharmaceutical, food, and beverage.

5. There's a growing trend of using maize as feedstock for ethanol production, which is mixed with petrol.

6. Less than 25% of maize is consumed directly by humans.

7. About 60% is used as feed for poultry and livestock, indirectly contributing to human food consumption through animal products.

8. 14-15% is used for industrial purposes.

The development of new varieties tailored for specific industrial uses, such as ethanol production, indicates a growing focus on maize's potential in various sectors.

Advantages of maize

1. Cross-pollination: Maize is naturally cross-pollinating, with separate male (tassel) and female (ear) flowers on the same plant.

2. Easy hybrid production: This structure makes it relatively easy and cost-effective to produce hybrid seeds on a large scale.

3. Heterosis (hybrid vigor): Maize exhibits strong hybrid vigor, where the first-generation (F1) hybrid often outperforms both parent lines significantly.

4. Profitable hybrid seed market: Due to the ease of production and strong hybrid vigor, there's a large and profitable market for hybrid maize seeds.

Advantage of Wheat and Rice:

1. Self-pollination: Both are primarily self-pollinating, with male and female parts in the same flower.

2. Can be hybridized: Despite being self-pollinating, both wheat and rice can be hybridized through various techniques.

3. More challenging hybrid production: Creating hybrids is more labor-intensive and expensive compared to maize.

4. Less pronounced hybrid vigor: While hybrid vigor exists, it's generally less dramatic than in maize.

5. Smaller hybrid seed market: Due to the challenges in production and less dramatic yield gains, the hybrid seed market is smaller for wheat and rice.

Why in the News?

The Karnataka government recently published the draft Karnataka Platform-based Gig Workers (Social Security and Welfare) Bill, which aims to address the welfare and rights of gig workers in the state. This bill is part of a broader trend to improve social security for gig economy workers.

About the Bill

 Welfare Board:

• Establishment: The bill proposes the creation of a 'Welfare Board' at the state level dedicated to securing the welfare of gig workers.
• Functions: The board would be responsible for overseeing and implementing welfare measures specifically tailored for gig workers.

Welfare Fund:

• Composition: The fund will be established from a welfare fee levied on transactions between gig workers and aggregators, as well as contributions from both Union and State governments.
• Purpose: This fund aims to provide financial support and social security benefits to gig workers.

Rights-Based Provisions:

• Protection of Rights: The bill is designed to safeguard the rights of gig workers, including their social security, occupational health, and safety.
• Obligations on Aggregators: Aggregators (platforms) will have specific obligations related to the welfare and treatment of gig workers.

Additional Features:

• Safeguards Against Unfair Dismissals: The bill includes provisions to protect gig workers from unjust terminations.
• Grievance Redressal Mechanism: It establishes a two-tier grievance redressal system to address issues faced by gig workers.
• Transparency: The bill mandates transparency in automated monitoring and decision-making systems used by platforms.

Issues with the Bill

Disclosure of Algorithmic Monitoring:

• Impact on Business: Requiring disclosure of algorithmic monitoring and reasons for terminations could potentially complicate business operations and affect the ease of doing business.

Minimum Wages and Working Hours:

• Absence of Regulation: The bill does not address crucial issues like minimum wages or working hours for gig workers, which are essential for ensuring fair compensation and working conditions.

Welfare Board Model:

• Limited Scope: While the welfare board provides some benefits, it does not fully replace institutional social security benefits such as provident fund, gratuity, or maternity benefits.

Scope of Regulation:

• Subset of Workers: Unlike the Code on Social Security, 2020 (COSS), which defines and regulates both gig workers and platform workers separately, the Karnataka Bill focuses only on platform-based gig workers. This narrower focus may limit the bill's overall effectiveness in addressing the needs of all gig economy participants.

Comparative Context

Rajasthan’s Legislation:

• Pioneering Approach: Rajasthan is currently the only state with legislation specifically addressing the welfare of gig workers, setting a precedent in the area of gig worker rights and benefits.

Code on Social Security, 2020 (COSS):

• Broad Framework: The COSS provides a more comprehensive framework by regulating both gig workers and platform workers, which may offer a more robust approach compared to state-specific legislation.

Gig Workers and Policy Initiatives

Definition and Categories of Gig Workers

Definition:

• Code on Social Security, 2020: Gig workers are defined as individuals who perform work or participate in a work arrangement and earn from such activities outside of the traditional employer-employee relationship.

Categories:

• Platform-Based Gig Workers: These individuals work through online software apps or digital platforms. Examples: Delivery workers for companies like Zomato or Uber.
• Non-Platform-Based Gig Workers: These include casual wage workers in conventional sectors, either part-time or full-time. Examples: Domestic workers, freelance artisans.

Drivers of Growth in the Gig Economy

• Technological Advancements: Innovations in digital platforms and apps have enabled the growth of gig work.
• Urbanization: Increased urbanization has created a demand for on-demand services.
• Rising Middle-Class Consumption: Growing consumer demands for flexible services.
• Shifts in Consumer Preferences: A trend towards on-demand and convenience-based services.
• Work-Life Balance: Workers seeking greater flexibility in their work arrangements.

Challenges for Gig Workers

• Digital Divide:
• Issue: Unequal access to internet services and digital technologies.
• Impact: Limits the opportunities available to gig workers, especially in rural or underdeveloped areas.
• Data Protection:
• Issue: Lack of transparency in how platform companies collect, store, and share personal data.
• Impact: Affects the right to privacy of workers.
• Lack of Employee Status:
• Issue: Gig workers are not considered employees under traditional labor laws.
• Impact: Results in challenges such as the inability to form unions and potential exploitation.
• Uncertain Nature of Jobs:
• Issue: Job security and regularity of wages are often unpredictable.
• Impact: Creates financial instability for gig workers.
• Lack of Social Protection:
• Issue: Absence of traditional employment benefits like health insurance and provident fund.
• Impact: Workers lack crucial safety nets.
• Algorithmic Management:
• Issue: Workers are subject to performance evaluations based on algorithms and ratings.
• Impact: Can lead to stress and pressures related to job performance.

Steps Taken for Gig Economy in India

• Code on Social Security, 2020:
• Provision: Extends social security benefits to gig workers.
• Code on Wages, 2019:
• Provision: Establishes a universal minimum wage and floor wage applicable to both organized and unorganized sectors, including gig workers.
• e-SHRAM Portal:
• Function: A national database for unorganized workers, including gig workers.
• Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana (PMSBY):
• Benefit: Provides accidental insurance cover of Rs. 2 lakh per year for eligible registered unorganized workers, including gig workers.
• Collaboration with National Law School of India University (NLSUI):
• Purpose: Assisting in the development of new schemes for gig and platform workers.
• Partnership: MoU with Employees Provident Fund Organisation (EPFO).

Way Forward

• Proper Estimation of Gig Workers:
• Action: Conduct separate enumeration exercises to accurately assess the number of gig workers.
• Catalyze Platformization:
• Proposal: Introduce initiatives like "Platform India" to support self-employed individuals in accessing broader markets.
• Accelerate Financial Inclusion:
• Action: Provide institutional credit to vulnerable gig workers through tailored financial products, leveraging FinTech innovations.
• Enhancing Social Inclusion in the Digital Economy:
• Action: Enable access for diverse groups, including women and persons with disabilities, through skill development and financial support.
• Skill Development for Platform Jobs:
• Action: Implement outcome-based, platform-led models for skilling and job creation.
• Integration: Combine employment and skill development portals with ASEEM portal for comprehensive support.
• Universal Social Security Coverage:
• Action: Extend social security measures, including paid sick leave, insurance, and pension plans, as outlined in the Code on Social Security 2020.
• Tripartite Dialogue:
• Action: Foster discussions among governments, platform unions, and employer bodies on labor issues and worker well-being in the platform economy.

India and Japan are set to sign a Memorandum of Cooperation (MoC) to establish a Joint Crediting Mechanism (JCM) under the framework of Article 6.2 of the Paris Agreement. This mechanism will facilitate the sharing of emission reduction credits between the two countries.

Key Features

• Formation and Framework:
• Article 6.2 of the Paris Agreement: The JCM will operate under this article, which allows for international carbon markets to support the fulfillment of nationally determined contributions (NDCs).
• Robust Accounting: Article 6.2 emphasizes the importance of accurate accounting to prevent double counting of emission reductions.
• Governance Structure:
• Joint Committee: A committee will be established to create rules and guidelines for the JCM. This includes:
• Project Cycle Procedures: Guidelines for developing and managing projects.
• Methodologies: Standards for calculating and verifying emission reductions.
• Project Design Documents: Requirements for project proposals.
• Monitoring: Systems to track progress and verify results.
• Third-Party Designation: Accreditation of entities that will validate and verify projects.
• Credit Allocation:
• Emission Reduction Credits: Credits from the JCM will contribute to the NDCs of both India and Japan. The mechanism will ensure no double counting of emission reductions.
• International Mitigation Purposes: A portion of JCM credits can be used for international mitigation efforts beyond the bilateral agreement.
• Project Registration: Projects will be registered and verified before credits are allocated. The joint committee will decide on the credit allocation percentage.
• Tracking and Reporting:
• Registry System: Credits will be tracked through a structured registry system, ensuring transparency and accountability.
• Credit Allocation: Credits will be allocated to the registries of India and Japan and applied toward their respective NDCs.
• Support from Japan:
• Technology Transfer: Japan will assist with the transfer of relevant technologies to support the JCM.
• Finance and Capacity Building: Japan will provide financial support and capacity-building measures to facilitate the implementation of the JCM.

Significance

• Climate Action:
• Enhanced NDCs: The JCM will help both countries meet their climate goals more effectively by leveraging joint efforts in emission reductions.
• International Cooperation: It exemplifies international collaboration in the fight against climate change, setting a precedent for future bilateral and multilateral mechanisms.
• Economic and Technological Benefits:
• Technology Transfer: Access to advanced Japanese technologies will aid India in scaling up its climate actions.
• Financial Support: The financial assistance from Japan will support the development and implementation of emission reduction projects.
• Global Leadership:
• Paris Agreement Compliance: By establishing the JCM, India and Japan demonstrate leadership in adhering to international climate agreements and contributing to global climate goals.
• Model for Others: The mechanism could serve as a model for other countries seeking to collaborate on carbon markets and emission reduction efforts.

Understanding Carbon Markets

Overview of Carbon Markets

Carbon markets are mechanisms designed to put a price on carbon emissions. They facilitate the buying and selling of carbon credits or allowances, providing a financial incentive for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

• Carbon Credit: A tradable permit representing the reduction or removal of one tonne of CO2 or equivalent greenhouse gases from the atmosphere.
• Carbon Allowance: A cap set by governments or authorities specifying the maximum amount of emissions that can be generated. Entities must acquire allowances to cover their emissions.

Types of Carbon Markets

• Compliance Market:
• Regulation: Governed by national, regional, or international policies.
• Mechanism: Entities receive annual allowances equivalent to their emission limits. If emissions exceed this limit, additional allowances must be purchased from other entities with surplus credits.
• Pricing: Market forces determine the price of carbon through trading of allowances.
• Examples: The European Union Emission Trading System (EU ETS), California Cap-and-Trade Program.
• Voluntary Market:
• Decentralized: Operates independently of regulatory frameworks.
• Mechanism: Individuals and organizations buy carbon credits to offset their own GHG emissions. Credits are generated by activities that reduce or remove emissions, such as reforestation projects.
• Participants: Corporations, private individuals, and entities looking to voluntarily compensate for their emissions.
• Examples: Projects verified by standards like the Verified Carbon Standard (VCS) or Gold Standard.

Carbon Market in India

• Historical Context: India has been a significant player in the voluntary carbon market, issuing 35.94 million carbon credits from 2010 to mid-2022, accounting for nearly 17% of global voluntary carbon market credits.
• Current Policy: India is shifting focus from exporting carbon credits to developing a domestic carbon market. The aim is to boost internal trading and enhance the domestic market's growth.

Legislative Developments

• Energy Conservation (Amendment) Act, 2022:
• Objective: To establish a carbon market within India and promote the adoption of clean energy technologies.
• Key Provisions:
• Carbon Credit Trading Scheme: The Act empowers the central government to create a trading scheme for carbon credits.
• Issuance and Trading: Carbon credit certificates can be issued to compliant entities, which can then buy or sell these certificates.
• Focus: Enhancing the use of clean energy sources and developing a robust domestic carbon market.

Significance and Future Prospects

• Climate Goals: Carbon markets play a critical role in helping countries meet their climate targets by incentivizing emission reductions.
• Economic Opportunities: They provide financial opportunities for entities involved in emission reduction projects and can drive innovation in clean technologies.
• Domestic Market Development: By focusing on developing a domestic carbon market, India aims to strengthen its position in global climate initiatives and enhance its capability to manage emissions internally.

Challenges

• Regulatory Challenges: Developing a domestic market involves establishing robust regulations and ensuring compliance.
• Market Volatility: Prices and demand for carbon credits can be volatile, affecting market stability.
• Integration: Balancing the expansion of the domestic market with international commitments and ensuring effective integration with global carbon markets.