The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2025 has been awarded to Susumu Kitagawa (Japan), Richard Robson (Australia), and Omar Yaghi (US) for their pioneering work in the creation and development of Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs), a groundbreaking class of materials with immense potential across multiple industries.
Richard Robson:
Robson was one of the first scientists to design 3D structures by combining metal ions (e.g., copper) with organic molecules, creating strong, interconnected frameworks.
He demonstrated that it is possible to build materials with large internal spaces capable of trapping molecules, thereby laying the foundation for the development of porous materials.
Susumu Kitagawa:
Building on Robson's work, Kitagawa discovered that these porous structures could not only remain stable but also have the remarkable ability to expand and contract in response to external gases or chemicals.
This adaptability allowed MOFs to be used in practical applications like gas capture (e.g., carbon dioxide) and energy storage, making them highly versatile.
Omar Yaghi:
Yaghi is credited with coining the term Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) and was instrumental in developing reticular chemistry, a systematic approach to assembling metal ions and organic molecules into large, well-ordered structures.
His contributions included rationally designing MOFs to have specific properties and functionalities, such as optimized pore sizes and selectivity for different gases, paving the way for numerous applications in environmental and industrial solutions.
MOFs are crystalline materials composed of metal ions linked by organic molecules, forming porous structures with tiny, well-organized holes (pores).
These materials have exceptionally high surface areas and can be engineered to trap, store, or filter gases and chemicals, making them highly effective for applications that require selective adsorption or storage.
Water Harvesting:
MOFs have the ability to extract water from desert air, potentially providing a solution to water scarcity, particularly in arid regions.
Carbon Capture:
Certain MOFs can selectively attract and store carbon dioxide (CO?), offering a powerful tool in the fight against climate change by reducing the concentration of CO? in the atmosphere.
Storage of Toxic Gases:
MOFs can be used to safely trap harmful chemicals or toxic gases, making them useful in environmental cleanup and chemical storage.
Custom-Designed Chemical Processes:
The highly customizable nature of MOFs allows them to be engineered for specific chemical reactions or storage needs, opening doors to tailored solutions for a range of industrial applications, from energy storage to pharmaceuticals.
Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, an Indian-born scientist, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2009, along with Thomas A. Steitz (US) and Ada E. Yonath (Israel), for their groundbreaking studies on the structure and function of the ribosome, a key molecular machine involved in protein synthesis.
The Nobel Prizes are prestigious international awards given annually to individuals or organizations that have made outstanding contributions to humanity in various fields. These prizes were established by the will of Alfred Nobel, a Swedish chemist, engineer, and inventor, who sought to use his fortune to reward those who had brought the "greatest benefit to mankind."
The Nobel Prizes were first awarded in 1901 and have since become a symbol of excellence and global recognition in their respective fields.
Each Nobel Prize laureate receives:
A gold medal, symbolizing their honor and achievement.
A diploma, personally signed by the awarding institution.
A cash award, which varies annually depending on the funds of the Nobel Foundation. For instance, in 2023, the cash prize was about 11 million Swedish kronor (approximately 1 million USD).
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2025 honors three scientists — Susumu Kitagawa, Richard Robson, and Omar Yaghi — for their innovative work in the development of Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs). These materials have revolutionized the way we approach energy storage, gas capture, water harvesting, and chemical processes.
India and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) recently celebrated 80 years of partnership on World Food Day 2025.
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established in October 1945. It is the oldest permanent specialized agency of the UN and plays a crucial role in coordinating international efforts to combat hunger and improve food security worldwide.
Mandate:
The primary goals of FAO include:
Improving nutrition around the world.
Increasing agricultural productivity to ensure sustainable food production.
Raising the standard of living of rural populations.
Contributing to global economic growth, particularly through agriculture and rural development.
Core Functions:
Coordinating international efforts: FAO brings together governments and technical agencies to develop strategies for improving agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and land and water resources.
Fighting hunger: The FAO leads efforts to combat hunger globally, making it a key player in achieving Zero Hunger under the UN Sustainable Development Goals.
Providing technical knowledge: It offers a platform for the exchange of knowledge, technical assistance, and best practices to support agricultural development.
Negotiating agreements: FAO serves as a forum for negotiations between developed and developing nations to tackle global food security challenges.
Membership:
FAO currently has 195 members: 194 countries and the European Union.
India is a founding member of the FAO and has been actively involved in its work to promote agricultural development and food security globally.
Headquarters:
The FAO is headquartered in Rome, Italy.
The FAO regularly publishes several important reports that assess global agricultural trends, food security, and environmental challenges:
The State of the World’s Forests (SOFO): A report on the status of global forests, addressing issues like deforestation, conservation, and sustainable forestry.
The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture (SOFIA): Focuses on global trends in fisheries and aquaculture, addressing sustainability and the role of fisheries in food security.
The State of Agricultural Commodity Markets (SOCO): Provides an analysis of global agricultural markets, trends in prices, and challenges facing agricultural producers.
The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World (SOFI): Examines food security trends, malnutrition, and progress toward global food security goals.
India has had a long and fruitful partnership with the FAO, especially in the context of agricultural development and food security. The partnership has led to:
Increasing agricultural productivity through modern farming techniques and sustainable practices.
Enhancing food security by improving the accessibility and affordability of food for India's population.
Capacity building for farmers, extension workers, and rural communities to adopt innovative agricultural practices.
Collaborative projects for sustainable land and water management, tackling issues like soil erosion, water conservation, and climate change.
The World Food Day 2025 celebrations marked this successful partnership and underscored the importance of continuing efforts to achieve food security and nutrition for all people, especially in the context of growing global challenges such as climate change, population growth, and economic disparities.
India's partnership with the FAO also highlights its commitment to achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 2: Zero Hunger.
As the world faces growing challenges of hunger and malnutrition, the FAO remains at the forefront of efforts to:
Promote sustainable food systems: Ensuring that food production is both environmentally sustainable and capable of feeding a growing global population.
Tackle food insecurity: The FAO works to improve access to food, reduce food waste, and address issues of undernutrition and overnutrition.
Support smallholder farmers: A large part of FAO’s work focuses on supporting small-scale farmers, particularly in developing countries, by providing them with the tools, knowledge, and resources needed to increase productivity and sustainability.
Climate action in agriculture: FAO helps countries adapt agriculture practices to changing climate conditions, with a focus on resilient food systems.
A recent study has documented 51 species of herpetofauna (reptiles and amphibians) in Papikonda National Park.
Location:
Papikonda National Park is located in the East Godavari and West Godavari districts of Andhra Pradesh, India. It is one of the most ecologically rich parks in the state, with a diverse array of flora and fauna.
Establishment and Area:
The park was established in 2008 and spans an area of 1,012.86 square kilometers. It lies along the Godavari River, offering a unique blend of rugged landscapes with steep slopes, hills, and deep valleys.
Geology:
The park is situated within the Eastern Ghats, an important mountain range that influences the region's climate, water systems, and biodiversity. The park is home to 62 named mountains, with Devara Konda being the highest point, and Verala Konda being the most prominent.
Bird and Biodiversity Area: The park has been recognized as an Important Bird and Biodiversity Area by BirdLife International due to its rich avian life and its role in supporting global biodiversity.
Hydrology and Precipitation: The park plays a vital role in contributing to the water system, as it is situated in an area of high precipitation, with streams and rivulets originating from the mountains and draining into the Godavari River. This network of waterways supports the region's flora and fauna.
Flora:
The park is home to diverse vegetation, primarily tropical, moist deciduous forests, with patches of semi-evergreen and dry deciduous forests. The dominant trees in the region include:
Teak
Rosewood
Sandalwood
Bamboo
Eucalyptus
Sal
Mahua
Pterocarpus
Terminalia
Cassia
Fauna:
The park boasts a wide variety of wildlife species, including:
Bengal Tiger
Indian Leopard
Sloth Bear
Indian Wild Dog (Dhole)
Various species of deer, such as sambar and spotted deer
Papikonda National Park remains a vital conservation area in Andhra Pradesh, with its diverse ecosystems and rich biodiversity playing a crucial role in maintaining environmental health. The recent documentation of 51 species of herpetofauna highlights its importance as a sanctuary for amphibians and reptiles, contributing to the overall understanding of India's rich natural heritage.
A pod of striped dolphins, which are uncommon in Andhra Pradesh's waters, was recently spotted off the coast of Visakhapatnam. This rare sighting has drawn attention from both local and international marine biologists, as striped dolphins are typically found in more temperate and tropical oceans but are not frequently seen in the coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh.
Scientific Name: Stenella coeruleoalba
The striped dolphin is a streamlined oceanic dolphin that shares a similar shape and size to the common dolphin. Known for its distinctive physical features, it is one of the most abundant and widespread dolphin species in the world.
Global Range:
Striped dolphins are found in the temperate and tropical waters of all the world's oceans, from the Arctic to the Antarctic. Their range includes:
Waters off Greenland and Northern Europe (United Kingdom, Denmark)
The Mediterranean Sea
Japan, Argentina, South Africa, Western Australia, and New Zealand.
Uncommon in Andhra Pradesh Waters:
Although their global range is widespread, the sighting of striped dolphins off the coast of Visakhapatnam is notable as these dolphins are not commonly seen in Andhra Pradesh waters.
Preferred Habitat:
Striped dolphins prefer deeper, offshore waters over the continental shelves. They are often found in areas where upwelling occurs, where cold, nutrient-rich water rises toward the surface. These dolphins are also attracted to convergence zones, where different ocean currents meet.
Social Structure:
Striped dolphins are typically found in tight, cohesive groups, known as pods, which usually range in size from 25 to 100 individuals. They are social animals that display a wide range of playful behaviors, including breaching, jumping, and leaping as high as 20 feet above the water's surface.
Size:
Striped dolphins reach a length of 2.5 to 2.6 meters, with males being slightly larger. The average length is around 2.2-2.3 meters.
Distinctive Features:
They have a long, defined rostrum (snout) and a round forehead (known as a melon).
Their dorsal fin is hooked, tall, and located mid-back.
The most recognizable feature of the striped dolphin is its stripes:
A dark grey stripe runs from the beak, above the eye, across the flank, and down to the underside of the body.
A second stripe runs below the eye to the pectoral flipper.
The dolphin’s flanks are light blue or grey above the stripes, with black appendages and a blue, white, or pink underside.
Unique Behaviors:
The striped dolphin exhibits a behavior known as "roto-tailing", where it leaps out of the water and rotates its tail vigorously while airborne. This behavior is a rare and fascinating display of athleticism in marine mammals.
Lifespan:
The estimated lifespan of striped dolphins is up to 58 years, which is relatively long for a marine mammal.
Conservation Status:
The striped dolphin is classified as "Least Concern" by the IUCN Red List, indicating that it is not currently at significant risk of extinction.
A novel monoclonal antibody called MAM01, developed by US researchers, has shown promising results in providing strong protection against malaria in an early clinical trial.
Purpose:
MAM01 is specifically designed to prevent malaria infection by targeting a critical protein on the malaria parasite. The antibody targets the Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite protein (CSP), which is a key protein found on the surface of the malaria parasite’s sporozoite stage—the form that infects the human body.
Mechanism of Action:
The antibody works by blocking infection before the parasite can reach the bloodstream, preventing the parasite from infecting the liver and subsequently causing malaria.
Clinical Trial Results:
The early-stage clinical trial demonstrated that MAM01 provided dose-dependent full protection against malaria. Importantly, the antibody exhibited minimal side effects, suggesting that it could be a safe and effective alternative to current malaria prevention methods.
Administration:
MAM01 is administered via a single injection. This long-acting antibody offers immediate protection, with the potential to provide months-long protection against malaria after just one dose.
Target Population:
This treatment is especially beneficial for young children and pregnant women, two groups that are particularly vulnerable to malaria. The ability to provide prolonged protection with a single injection could dramatically reduce the burden of malaria in endemic regions.
Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are laboratory-made proteins designed to mimic the body's natural immune defenses. They are engineered to target specific molecules or cells related to diseases like cancer, infections, or autoimmune disorders.
The Term "Monoclonal":
The term "monoclonal" refers to the fact that these antibodies are clones of a single type of antibody, meaning they are all identical and recognize the same target molecule.
Production of Monoclonal Antibodies:
Monoclonal antibodies are produced by cloning a single B cell (a type of immune cell that produces antibodies) and allowing it to produce large quantities of the antibody. These antibodies are then purified and used for therapeutic purposes.
Specificity:
mAbs are highly specific, meaning they are designed to recognize and bind to only one target molecule with great precision. This high specificity helps minimize the risk of side effects compared to broader, less targeted treatments.
Applications:
Monoclonal antibodies have wide-ranging applications in medicine, including the treatment of:
Cancer (e.g., targeting tumor cells)
Autoimmune diseases (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis)
Infectious diseases (e.g., malaria, HIV)
The development of MAM01 could significantly change the way malaria is prevented, especially in endemic regions where access to vaccines and conventional treatments may be limited. A single dose providing long-lasting protection would not only reduce the risk of transmission but also offer an easier and more accessible way to protect vulnerable populations, such as pregnant women and children under five, who are at the highest risk of malaria-related deaths.
The development of MAM01 represents a promising advancement in malaria prevention. With its ability to provide long-term protection through a single injection, this monoclonal antibody could revolutionize malaria control, especially in vulnerable populations.
India's Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Tejas Mk1A is set to join the fleet of the Indian Air Force (IAF), marking a significant milestone in India's indigenous fighter jet program. Developed by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), the Tejas Mk1A is an upgraded version of the Tejas Mk1, designed to improve its operational capabilities, survivability, and maintainability.
The Tejas Mk1A is an advanced variant of the LCA Tejas, an indigenously developed fighter jet by India, primarily aimed at replacing older models like the MiG-21 in the IAF’s fleet. The Mk1A version builds on the earlier Mk1 with significant improvements that enhance its overall effectiveness in combat and operational scenarios.
AESA Radar Integration: The Tejas Mk1A is equipped with an Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar, which enhances detection range, target tracking, and multi-target engagement. This makes it highly effective in modern combat scenarios.
Electronic Warfare Suite (EWS): The addition of an Electronic Warfare Suite enables the aircraft to detect radar signals, jam enemy radars, and provide self-protection against hostile missiles and other threats.
Upgraded Flight Control Computer (DFCC Mk1A): The upgraded flight control system improves the maneuverability and stability of the aircraft, ensuring better control during high-speed and complex combat situations.
Missile Compatibility:
Beyond Visual Range (BVR) missiles, which allow the aircraft to engage targets beyond the pilot's line of sight.
Air-to-Air and Air-to-Ground missile capabilities.
The aircraft is also compatible with the Advanced Short Range Air-to-Air Missiles (ASRAAM), which are designed for close combat.
Future Integration Plans: The Tejas Mk1A will be integrated with advanced systems such as the Combined Interrogator and Transponder (CIT), Software Defined Radio (SDR), and Operating Data Link (ODL) for enhanced communication and operational flexibility.
The LCA Tejas program was initiated by the Government of India in 1984 to replace the ageing fleet of MiG-21 aircraft in the Indian Air Force. The program is managed by the Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA), and its success represents a major leap in India’s aerospace and defense technology.
Lightest and Smallest: The LCA Tejas is the lightest and smallest multi-role supersonic fighter in its class, making it highly agile and effective in diverse combat scenarios.
Versatile Combat Capabilities: The Tejas can carry a variety of air-to-air, air-to-surface, and precision-guided weapons, including bombs and missiles. This makes it a flexible asset for both offensive and defensive roles.
Payload Capacity: It has a maximum payload capacity of 4,000 kg, allowing it to carry heavy weaponry while maintaining high maneuverability.
High-Speed Performance: The Tejas can reach speeds up to Mach 1.8, which is crucial for intercepting enemy aircraft and engaging targets at long ranges.
Range: With a range of 3,000 km, the Tejas is capable of covering a large operational area, enhancing its strategic importance.
Tejas Trainer: A 2-seater version of the LCA designed for pilot training, allowing IAF pilots to train before flying operational missions.
LCA Navy: A carrier-capable version of the Tejas, developed for the Indian Navy, available in both twin-seat and single-seat variants.
LCA Tejas Navy Mk2: The Phase 2 development of the LCA Navy, designed for more demanding carrier operations, with improved features like higher thrust engines and enhanced landing gear.
LCA Tejas Mk1A: The upgraded version of the LCA Tejas Mk1, featuring better radar, avionics, and missile capabilities, along with a higher thrust engine to improve overall performance.
The induction of the Tejas Mk1A into the Indian Air Force is a major milestone in India's quest for self-reliance in defense technology. With this indigenous fighter jet, India will be able to reduce its dependence on foreign arms suppliers and gain greater control over its defense capabilities. Additionally, the Tejas Mk1A offers several advantages:
Enhanced combat readiness due to its advanced avionics and missile systems.
Cost-effectiveness compared to other fighter jets in its class, ensuring better utilization of defense budgets.
Strategic significance as India strengthens its indigenous defense industry and demonstrates its technological prowess in aerospace.
The Tejas Mk1A represents a significant step forward for India’s defense sector, providing the Indian Air Force with a state-of-the-art, indigenous fighter jet capable of addressing modern combat requirements. Its enhanced capabilities, including the AESA radar, Electronic Warfare Suite, and missile compatibility, make it a formidable asset in India’s air combat strategy.
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We provide offline, online and recorded lectures in the same amount.
Every aspirant is unique and the mentoring is customised according to the strengths and weaknesses of the aspirant.
In every Lecture. Director Sir will provide conceptual understanding with around 800 Mindmaps.
We provide you the best and Comprehensive content which comes directly or indirectly in UPSC Exam.
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