Rising Costs and Inequality in Basic Schooling in India

The NSS 80th Round (2025) highlights a worrying trend in India’s basic education landscape. Despite the constitutional guarantee of the Right to Free and Compulsory Education for children aged 6 to 14 under Article 21A and the ambitions of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, household expenditure on education is rising, and access is becoming increasingly unequal due to the growing reliance on private schools and coaching.

1. Enrolment Trends: Public vs Private Schools

At the national level, school enrolment remains divided between government and private institutions:

• Government schools: 55.9% of students

• Private aided schools: 11.3%

• Private unaided schools: 31.9%

Urban–Rural Divide

• Urban areas: 51.4% of students attend private schools

• Rural areas: Only 24.3% of students attend private schools

Gender Gap

• Private school enrolment shows a modest gender difference: 34% of boys versus 29.5% of girls.

Rising Private Enrolment Over Time

• Compared with the 75th NSS Round (2017–18), private enrolment has increased across all education levels in both rural and urban areas.

• This indicates a growing preference for private education, which is often associated with perceived higher quality, despite higher costs.

2. Cost of Education

Even in government schools, a significant proportion of students pay fees:

• Rural government schools: 25.3% of students pay fees

• Urban government schools: 34.7% of students pay fees

In contrast, 98% of private school students, both in rural and urban areas, pay course fees.

Comparison with Household Income

• Pre-primary private schooling can cost as much as the monthly income of the poorest 5% of households.

• Higher secondary private schooling can match the monthly income of households in the third income decile.

These figures show that education has become a heavy financial burden, even at the basic level.

3. Private Coaching: Hidden Cost of Learning

Private tutoring has become a widespread parallel education system:

• Incidence of private coaching:

  • Rural areas: 25.5% of children take private tutoring

  • Urban areas: 30.7% of children take private tutoring

• Participation increases with grade level, rising from 10–13% at pre-primary to over 40% at higher secondary.

Expenditure on Private Coaching

• Average annual cost: ₹7,066 in rural areas and ₹13,026 in urban areas.

• This adds significantly to the already high cost of schooling.

Socio-Economic Correlates of Private Tutoring and Educational Inequality

The NSS 80th Round (2025) reveals that the rising reliance on private tutoring and schooling is closely linked to socio-economic status, and it has significant implications for cost burden, inequality, and social mobility.

1. Cost Burden and Inequality

The survey shows that private school students pay up to nine times more than government school students. The financial burden is particularly high for lower-income families, who often have to cut back on essentials to afford private schooling or tutoring.

Urban households, especially in states like Telangana and Delhi, spend significantly more on education, including tuition fees, transport, and digital devices.

Implication: The high cost of private schooling and tutoring reinforces existing socio-economic divides, making access to quality education heavily dependent on household income.

2. Policy Blind Spots

Despite its prevalence, private tutoring remains largely unregulated. While the National Education Policy (NEP 2020) recognizes the problem, there is limited oversight or actionable regulation of the coaching industry.

The lack of affordable, high-quality public schooling forces many families toward expensive private alternatives, further reinforcing socio-economic inequality.

3. Parental Aspirations and Social Mobility

Families with higher household income, parental education, and urban residence often view private tutoring as an investment in academic success and social prestige.

Ironically, many private school teachers are underpaid and underqualified, despite the high fees charged by private schools. This compels parents to spend additional money on private coaching to ensure their children’s academic competitiveness.

Implication: Private tutoring has become a necessary supplement, particularly in private schools, for families aiming for upward social mobility.

4. Inequality and the Decline of Public Schooling

Although free education is a constitutional right, costly private education is increasingly the norm, perpetuating inequality.

• Affluent families can afford private schools and tutoring, gaining access to better learning outcomes.

• Poorer families are often limited to underfunded public schools, resulting in divergent educational outcomes.

Result: India’s basic education system is becoming stratified along socio-economic lines, undermining the principle of equitable access to quality education.

Constitutional Provisions on Education in India

Education in India is governed by multiple provisions in the Constitution, spanning Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles of State Policy, Fundamental Duties, Official Language provisions, and the Union-State legislative lists.

1. Fundamental Rights

Article	Provision
21A	Right to compulsory education for all children aged 6 to 14 years.
28	Freedom regarding attendance at religious instruction or worship in certain educational institutions.
30	Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.

2. Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP)

Article	Provision
41	Right to work, education, and public assistance in certain cases.
45	Provision for free and compulsory education for children; also emphasizes early childhood care and education for children below six years.

3. Fundamental Duties

Article	Provision
51A	Responsibility of a parent or guardian to provide educational opportunities to their child or ward aged 6–14 years.

4. Official Language Provisions

Article	Provision
350A	States shall provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother tongue at the primary stage for children belonging to linguistic minority groups. The President may issue directions to the States to ensure this provision.

5. Union-State Legislative Lists (Schedule 7)

Education-related responsibilities are distributed across the Union, State, and Concurrent lists:

Union List:

• Institutions like Banaras Hindu University, Aligarh Muslim University, Delhi University

• Institutions of National Importance

• Scientific, technical, professional, and vocational education funded by the Government of India

• Promotion of research and determination of standards in higher education

Concurrent List:

• Education (including technical education)

• Medical education and universities

• Vocational and technical training

• Agricultural education

State List:

• States are responsible for administration and regulation of schools and primary/secondary education within the state.

Ministry of Education in India

The Ministry of Education oversees education at all levels and has two main departments:

Department	Responsibilities
Department of School Education & Literacy	Focuses on the development of school education and literacy, including universalization of education.
Department of Higher Education	Responsible for higher education systems, research, and bringing world-class opportunities in higher education to India.

Challenges and Issues in the Indian Education System

The Indian education system faces multiple challenges that hinder its ability to provide equitable, quality, and accessible education. These challenges span funding, teaching quality, infrastructure, and privatization, among others.

1. Lack of Resources and Funding

One of the most pressing challenges is the insufficient funding of educational programs and institutions.

• According to the Economic Survey 2022–23, the budgetary allocation for education as a percentage of total government expenditure has declined from 10.4% to 9.5% over the past seven years.

• Inadequate funding leads to limited facilities, poor teacher salaries, and lack of educational materials, which directly affect the quality of education.

2. Teaching Quality and Teacher Shortage

The quality of teaching in many institutions remains underdeveloped due to several factors:

• Shortage of qualified teachers, particularly in rural areas.

• Outdated curricula and instructional methods that do not focus on practical or skill-based learning.

• Ineffective teaching-learning methods that fail to engage students.

These issues lead to deprived learning outcomes and a mismatch between education and real-world skills.

3. Traditional Teaching Methods

• Many institutions continue to rely on rote learning and lecture-based teaching.

• Teachers rarely use technology, audio-visual aids, or interactive methods, especially at the pre-primary and primary levels.

• This limits critical thinking, creativity, and digital literacy among students.

4. Privatization of Education

• More than 50% of education in India is delivered through private institutions, many of which operate without government assistance.

• Private providers, motivated by profit maximization, may compromise on the quality of education to reduce costs.

• This trend contributes to rising household expenditure on education and inequality in access between rich and poor families.

5. Inadequate Facilities and Infrastructure

• Many schools, colleges, and training centers lack basic infrastructure such as classrooms, laboratories, libraries, and sanitation facilities.

• Poor infrastructure negatively affects student learning outcomes, teacher effectiveness, and the overall learning environment.

Measures for Improving the Education Ecosystem in India

To enhance the quality, accessibility, and inclusivity of education in India, several measures can be adopted, ranging from teacher incentives to international cooperation and modernized teaching methods.

1. Incentives for Teachers and Researchers

• Attracting and retaining talent in teaching and research is essential to improve education quality.

• Incentives can include better salaries, recognition, career growth opportunities, and research grants.

• Motivated teachers and researchers contribute to higher learning outcomes and innovation in pedagogy.

2. Adoption of Innovative Practices and Technology

• Modern technologies can enhance curriculum delivery, teaching methods, and learning experiences.

• Integration of digital tools, online learning platforms, and interactive multimedia improves engagement and knowledge retention.

• Encourages critical thinking, creativity, and socio-cultural development among students.

3. Mobilization of Resources and Finances

• Increased government funding for education is necessary to address resource gaps.

• Private investment and public-private partnerships (PPP) can supplement government efforts.

• Adequate funding ensures teacher training, curriculum development, and infrastructure improvements.

4. Improved Infrastructure

• Upgrading school and college buildings and providing basic amenities is crucial.

• Modern infrastructure includes laboratories, libraries, digital devices, and accessibility facilities.

• Better infrastructure directly impacts student learning, teacher effectiveness, and overall educational quality.

 

5. Student-Centered and Dynamic Learning Methods

• Education should focus on holistic learning across four dimensions:

  1. Learning to learn – developing the ability to acquire and apply knowledge independently.

  2. Learning to do – acquiring practical skills for real-life applications.

  3. Learning to be – fostering personal development, ethics, and emotional intelligence.

  4. Learning to become – preparing students for lifelong growth, adaptability, and social contribution.

• This approach promotes critical thinking, creativity, and skill development over rote memorization.

6. Decentralization of Education

• Local authorities should be given more control over educational administration and funding.

• Decentralization improves accountability, responsiveness, and day-to-day functioning of schools.

• Local governance ensures that resources and policies are tailored to regional needs.

7. International Cooperation

• Collaboration with global educational institutions can provide knowledge sharing, technical expertise, and financial support.

• Promotes research collaborations, student and faculty exchange programs, and adoption of best practices from other countries.

• Strengthens India’s global competitiveness in education.

8. Shift from Output-Based to Outcome-Based Objectives

• Education should focus on learning outcomes rather than mere enrollment or completion rates.

• Emphasis on skills, critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity ensures holistic development.

• Outcome-based education aligns with the needs of a knowledge-driven economy.

Ongoing Efforts to Improve Public Schooling in India

India has launched several initiatives in recent years to strengthen public education, improve quality, and increase access. These efforts aim to make education inclusive, equitable, and aligned with the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020.

1. Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan (2018)

• Integrates three earlier schemes: Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA), and Teacher Education (TE).

• Aims to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education from pre-primary to Class XII.

• Focuses on universal enrolment, retention, and improving learning outcomes across all levels of school education.

2. PM SHRI Schools (2022)

• Seeks to develop over 14,500 model schools across India.

• Key features:

  • Modern infrastructure including smart classrooms.

  • Holistic, inquiry-based pedagogy aligned with NEP 2020.

  • Emphasis on environmental sustainability and experiential learning.

3. National Digital Education Architecture (NDEAR)

• Aims to create a unified digital infrastructure for education.

• Key components:

  • DIKSHA platform: e-content and teacher training resources.

  • UDISE+: real-time school data collection.

  • Digital learning resources in regional languages to enhance accessibility.

4. Mid-Day Meal Scheme (PM POSHAN)

• Seeks to improve nutritional status and school attendance.

• Benefits over 11 crore children in government and government-aided schools.

• Includes pre-primary children in some states and fortified food to enhance nutrition.

5. Bharatiya Bhasha Pustak Scheme (Union Budget 2025–26)

• Provides digital-format textbooks in Indian languages.

• Enhances comprehension and accessibility, especially for students from diverse linguistic backgrounds.

Way Forward: Strengthening Publicly Funded Schools

• Addressing inequities in education requires urgent systemic reforms.

• Strengthening public schools is crucial to ensure that education remains a right, not a privilege.

• Evidence from the Journal of Development Studies (2024) suggests that:

  • Private tuition is negatively associated with school quality.

  • Students in better government schools rely less on private coaching.

• Key strategies:

  • Improving teaching standards.

  • Upgrading infrastructure.

  • Ensuring accountability and monitoring in public schools.

• These measures can restore public confidence in free education and reduce reliance on costly private tuition.

Conclusion

• India’s constitutional vision of free and universal education remains far from fully realized.

• Education has become one of the largest household expenditures, with rising private school enrolment, high tuition costs, and dependence on private coaching.

• To achieve the NEP 2020 goal of universal education by 2030, India must:

  • Revitalize public schooling.

  • Ensure equitable funding.

  • Uphold the constitutional promise of education for all.

Strengthening public education is essential for equity, quality, and social mobility, ensuring that free education is not a privilege for a few but a right for every child.