Recently, the discovery of a Rock Eagle Owl nest led the Telangana Forest Department to halt quarrying operations for over a month. This action highlights the ecological importance of the species and the need to protect its natural habitat.
About the Rock Eagle Owl
The Rock Eagle Owl, scientifically named Bubo bengalensis, is also known as the Indian eagle-owl or Bengal eagle-owl. It is a large-horned owl species native to hilly scrub forests in India. The species was previously considered a subspecies of the Eurasian eagle-owl.
Appearance
The Rock Eagle Owl is typically brown and grey in color, with a white throat patch featuring black stripes.
Chicks are born with white fluff, which is gradually replaced by speckled feathers during the pre-juvenile moult after about two weeks.
These owls are usually seen in pairs.
They have a deep, resonant booming call, often heard at dawn and dusk.
Habitat and Distribution
The species prefers rocky areas in the mainland of the Indian subcontinent, south of the Himalayas.
It avoids humid evergreen forests and extremely arid regions.
Distribution: Found primarily in India, Nepal, and Pakistan.
Conservation Status
IUCN Red List: Least Concern
CITES: Appendix II
The Rock Eagle Owl plays an important role in its ecosystem, and its protection can influence industrial and developmental activities, as demonstrated by the halt of quarrying in Telangana.
Recent clashes have resurfaced along the Pakistan–Afghanistan border, with the Taliban accusing Pakistan of air strikes near the Durand Line, highlighting longstanding tensions in the region.
Historical Origin of the Durand Line
The Durand Line was drawn in 1893 between British India and Afghanistan.
Negotiated by Sir Henry Mortimer Durand, then Foreign Secretary of British India, and Emir Abdur Rahman Khan of Afghanistan.
The border stretches 2,600 km, from the Iranian border in the west to the China border in the east, cutting across the Karakoram range and the Registan desert.
Its creation split Pashtun tribal areas, placed Balochistan under British India, and established the Wakhan Corridor as a buffer between Russia and Britain.
Role in the Anglo-Afghan Wars
Afghanistan became strategically important in the 1800s, as Russia and Britain competed for influence in Central Asia.
First Anglo-Afghan War (1839–1842): Britain invaded but was repelled.
Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–1880): Britain invaded again, secured the Treaty of Gandamak (1879), gaining control over Afghanistan’s foreign policy.
Durand Line Agreement (1893): Formalized the border with the splitting of tribal regions.
Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919): Ended with the Treaty of Rawalpindi, restoring Afghanistan’s control over foreign affairs while reaffirming the Durand Line.
Post-1947 Inheritance
After Partition, Pakistan inherited the Durand Line as its western border.
Afghanistan refused to recognize it, labeling it a colonial imposition.
Pashtunistan Issue
Pashtun groups on both sides of the border demanded a separate Pashtunistan, creating a persistent source of bilateral tension.
Taliban Position
The Taliban, along with previous Afghan governments, reject the legitimacy of the Durand Line.
They continue to press claims over Pashtun regions on the Pakistani side of the border.
India aims to achieve a $1.2 trillion bioeconomy by 2047, which will require capital-market innovation, regulatory modernization, and a strategic blend of technological and scientific innovation.
What is Bioeconomy?
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the bioeconomy involves:
The production, utilization, and conservation of biological resources.
Integration of knowledge, science, technology, and innovation to provide:
Information
Products
Processes
Services across all economic sectors.
Goal: Promote a sustainable economy while leveraging biological resources efficiently.
Status of India’s Bioeconomy
Rapid Growth: The sector has expanded 16-fold in a decade, from $10 billion in 2014 to over $165 billion in 2024.
Contribution to GDP: India’s bioeconomy contributes 4.25% to the national GDP, highlighting its growing significance in national development.
Key Drivers:
Advances in biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, agriculture, and bioenergy.
A thriving startup ecosystem and government support.
Ethanol Production:
India is the third-largest producer of blended ethanol.
Ethanol production has almost tripled in five years, supporting energy security and decarbonization efforts.
Key Sectors Driving India’s Bioeconomy
India’s bioeconomy is powered by multiple high-potential sectors that are driving innovation, economic growth, and sustainability.
1. Biopharma
India is already a global leader in generic drugs and vaccines. The country is now focusing on advanced therapeutics, including biologics, biosimilars, and personalized medicine, which can help India compete in the global pharmaceutical and biotechnology markets.
2. Agricultural Biotechnology
Innovations in crop genetics, biofertilizers, and precision farming are enabling enhanced food security and promoting sustainable agriculture practices. These developments are crucial for supporting India’s growing population while reducing environmental impacts.
3. Bioenergy and Biofuels
India is expanding production of bioethanol and biogas, which offer scalable alternatives to fossil fuels. These biofuels support the country’s clean energy transition and contribute to decarbonization efforts.
4. Industrial Biotechnology
The sector includes enzymes, bioplastics, and green chemicals, which serve as eco-friendly industrial inputs. These innovations reduce reliance on traditional chemical processes and promote sustainable manufacturing.
Potential Impact
By focusing on these sectors, India can develop thousands of deep-tech startups, become a global leader in mRNA, RNAi, gene therapy, biosimilars, and biologics, emerge as a preferred hub for clinical research and bio-manufacturing, generate millions of high-value jobs, and achieve a $1.2 trillion bioeconomy by 2047 under the BioE³ framework.
India’s Push for Expanding the Bioeconomic Architecture
BioE³ Policy
The BioE³ (Biotechnology for Economy, Environment, Employment) policy acts as a unifying strategy to propel India’s bioeconomy. It focuses on six key domains:
Bio-based chemicals
Functional foods
Carbon capture technologies
Precision biotherapeutics
Climate-smart agriculture
Marine and space bio-research
Other Key Measures
Several national initiatives complement the BioE³ policy:
National Mission on Bioeconomy (2016) – Provides a strategic roadmap for biotechnology development.
National Biopharma Mission – Accelerates innovation and manufacturing in biopharma.
Bio-RIDE and BioNEST incubators – Support biotech startups and promote innovation ecosystems.
Global Biofuels Alliance – Encourages international collaboration in biofuels.
National Biological Data Centre (NBDC) – Serves as a central repository for biological data, facilitating research and development.
Hindrances to Achieving a $1.2 Trillion Bioeconomy by 2047
India’s ambition to become a $1.2 trillion bioeconomy faces multiple structural, regulatory, and infrastructural challenges:
1. Structural Bottlenecks
India does not permit pre-revenue or research-stage biotech companies to list publicly.
As a result:
Innovators rely heavily on private, risk-averse capital.
Valuations remain suppressed.
High-potential startups relocate abroad, seeking more supportive ecosystems.
2. Regulatory Inefficiencies
Cumbersome approval processes for biotech products delay innovation and commercialization.
Absence of a single-window clearance system creates uncertainty for startups and research trials.
First-in-Human (FIH) trial approvals take months, and each trial phase requires a fresh Subject Expert Committee (SEC) review.
CDSCO lacks scientific capacity to assess emerging modalities such as mRNA, CRISPR, CAR-T, and gene therapies.
3. Limited Capital Market Access
Biotech startups struggle to raise early-stage and scale-up funding due to high R&D risks and long gestation periods.
India lacks a robust biotech IPO pipeline, unlike the US and China, where public markets actively support biotech innovation.
4. Fragmented Innovation Ecosystem
Weak industry-academia linkages hinder translational research and product development.
Many innovations remain trapped in labs due to poor commercialization pathways and limited technology transfer infrastructure.
5. Inadequate Infrastructure
Shortage of biomanufacturing facilities, especially for biologics, diagnostics, and advanced therapeutics.
6. Policy and Coordination Gaps
Multiple ministries (Science & Technology, Health, Agriculture, Environment) operate in silos, leading to policy fragmentation.
Absence of a centralized bioeconomy mission or roadmap with measurable milestones hampers strategic alignment.
Key Suggestions for Achieving a $1.2 Trillion Bioeconomy
1. Regulatory Reform
India’s current drug-regulation system, led by CDSCO, is slow, fragmented, and bureaucratic.
Even with capital access, innovation will stagnate without regulatory speed and scientific clarity.
2. Innovation & Biotech Board
India urgently needs a dedicated listing board on NSE and BSE, modeled on NASDAQ, STAR, and Hong Kong’s Biotech Chapter.
Benefits of such a platform:
Allow pre-revenue and research-stage biotech listings.
Enable IP-led companies to access patient capital.
Attract global investors to India’s science story.
Encourage domestic scaling instead of foreign migration.
3. Focus on Innovation
A combination of capital-market reform and regulatory reform can drive innovation that powers global biotech leadership.
Requires:
A dedicated Innovation & Biotech Board.
A science-led dual-agency regulatory system.
Strong institutional support for startups and research institutions.
Two-Pillar Regulatory Model for India
Empower ICMR for Scientific Review
Leverage ICMR’s research depth and ethical infrastructure for evaluating early-stage drugs, vaccines, diagnostics, and advanced biologics.
Position CDSCO as Licensing Authority
CDSCO should focus on final approvals, GMP compliance, site inspections, and pharmacovigilance.
Benefits of this model:
Separation of scientific assessment (ICMR) and administrative licensing (CDSCO) can:
Reduce approval timelines.
Improve scientific rigour.
Reinforce investor confidence in India’s biotech ecosystem.
Conclusion
India stands at a decisive juncture in its journey toward becoming a global bioeconomy leader. The country already possesses world-class science, abundant talent, and a growing market. What remains is the courage to implement bold reforms.Capital-market innovation and regulatory modernization must be treated as national priorities to unlock the full potential of India’s biotech ecosystem.
With these reforms, India can evolve from being the “pharmacy of the world” to becoming the “lab of the world”, leading global biotech innovation rather than merely supplying it. Bold action today will secure India’s position as a front-runner in science, technology, and bio-based economic growth by 2047.
Recently, the National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR) celebrated its Silver Jubilee. To mark the occasion, commemorative postage stamps were also released, highlighting India’s contributions to polar and ocean research.
About NCPOR
Establishment: NCPOR was established as an autonomous Research and Development institution on 25th May 1998.
Former Name: Previously known as the National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research (NCAOR).
Role: The centre has been at the forefront of India’s scientific expeditions and research programs in the Polar regions and the Southern Ocean.
Nodal Ministry: Operates under the Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India.
Location: Based in Vasco da Gama, Goa.
Mandate and Functions
Polar Expeditions: NCPOR is the nodal organization for coordinating and implementing the Indian Antarctic Programme, and executes expeditions in the Antarctic, Arctic, Southern Ocean, and Himalayas.
Strategically Important Projects of NCPOR
NCPOR carries out several projects that are not only scientific but also strategically important for India’s national interests, security, and resource management.
1. Mapping of India’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
India has an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of about 2.3 million square kilometers, extending up to 200 nautical miles from its coastline.
Purpose:
To identify and map resources such as minerals, hydrocarbons, and fisheries.
To establish sovereignty over marine resources.
Supports maritime security and ocean governance.
Strategic Significance: Ensures India can exploit its marine resources sustainably and monitor foreign activities in its maritime zones.
2. Continental Shelf Surveys
NCPOR conducts surveys to map the seabed beyond the EEZ, called the continental shelf, in line with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
Purpose:
Identify areas rich in minerals and hydrocarbons.
Collect bathymetric, geological, and geophysical data for research and policy.
Strategic Significance: Helps India expand its jurisdiction over seabed resources, giving it a competitive advantage in the Indian Ocean region.
3. Deep Ocean Mission
Part of India’s initiative to explore deep-sea resources, including polymetallic nodules, rare earth elements, and other minerals.
Purpose:
To develop technology for deep-sea exploration and mining.
Promote sustainable use of ocean resources.
Strategic Significance:
Strengthens India’s technological capabilities in ocean exploration.
Enhances economic and strategic leverage in the Indian Ocean and global seabed governance.
Research Stations: The centre has established and operationalized permanent Indian research stations, including:
Antarctica: DakshinGangotri, Maitri, Bharati
Arctic: Himadri
Himalayas: Himansh
Significance
NCPOR plays a vital role in India’s polar and ocean research, supporting scientific, strategic, and environmental initiatives. Its work contributes to national security, climate research, and oceanic resource management.
The Chief Justice of India, Justice Surya Kant, has called for the formulation of a National Judicial Policy to reduce divergence in judicial functioning across courts. He also stated that the Supreme Court would consider a plea seeking the revival of the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC), which directly challenges the existing Collegium system of judicial appointments.
Need for a National Judicial Policy
1. Resolving Divergent Judgments
Different High Courts and even different benches of the Supreme Court often deliver conflicting judgments on similar legal issues such as bail, reservations, and service matters. This creates legal uncertainty and encourages forum shopping, where litigants approach courts perceived to be more favourable.
A National Judicial Policy could promote uniform standards, better use of precedent, and consistent constitutional interpretation, thereby enhancing clarity, predictability, and public trust in the judiciary.
2. Bridging Access-to-Justice Gaps
India’s judiciary faces massive pendency, with over 5 crore cases pending across courts. Long delays, high litigation costs, geographical distance, and language barriers make justice inaccessible, especially for marginalised and vulnerable groups.
A national policy could help reduce barriers related to cost, delay, distance, and language by promoting uniform access standards and citizen-centric reforms.
3. Addressing Structural Gaps in the Judiciary
According to the India Justice Report 2025, nearly 33% of High Court judges’ posts remain vacant, leaving India with only one High Court judge per 18.7 lakh people.
At the district level, courts suffer from overcrowded courtrooms, inadequate IT systems, lack of fire safety, insufficient furniture, and poor staff facilities.
A National Judicial Policy could guide systematic capacity-building, infrastructure planning, and human resource development across all levels of the judiciary.
4. Standardising Technology and Case Management
The adoption of e-filing, virtual hearings, and digital case management systems varies widely across courts. This leads to unequal access, inconsistent procedures, and differing user experiences.
A common national framework would ensure uniform, efficient, and citizen-friendly judicial services across jurisdictions.
5. Promoting Judicial Harmony
A unified policy framework can help courts across the country uphold shared constitutional values, while still preserving their institutional independence. This would bring coherence and coordination to India’s justice delivery system.
Concerns with a National Judicial Policy
1. One-Size-Fits-All Challenge
Indian states differ widely in caseloads, infrastructure quality, digital readiness, and staffing levels. A single national template may not adequately address diverse local judicial realities.
2. Risk to Judicial Independence
If the executive branch plays a significant role in shaping the policy, it could raise concerns about separation of powers and undermine judicial autonomy.
3. Implementation Capacity Constraints
Many courts lack sufficient funds, trained staff, digital tools, and infrastructure, making it difficult to implement uniform national standards effectively.
4. Resistance from High Courts
Under Articles 214–226 of the Constitution, High Courts exercise control over their procedures, rosters, and administration. Imposing uniformity may face institutional resistance from High Courts.
5. Data Gaps and Weak Judicial Statistics
Several states lack real-time data on case flow, pendency, and court performance. These data gaps hinder evidence-based policymaking and effective monitoring.
What is the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC)?
The National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC) was a proposed constitutional body created to replace the Collegium system for appointing judges to the Supreme Court and High Courts.
Constitutional Basis and Composition
The NJAC was established through the 99th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2014, along with the NJAC Act, 2014.
Under the NJAC system, the President of India was to appoint judges based on the recommendations of a six-member commission, consisting of:
The Chief Justice of India (CJI) – Chairperson
The two senior-most judges of the Supreme Court
The Union Minister for Law and Justice
Two eminent persons
The two eminent persons were to be selected by a panel comprising the Prime Minister, the Chief Justice of India, and the Leader of Opposition in the Lok Sabha.
Striking Down of the NJAC
In 2015, in the Fourth Judges Case (Supreme Court Advocates-on-Record Association vs Union of India), the Supreme Court struck down the 99th Constitutional Amendment and the NJAC Act as unconstitutional.
Key Reasons for Striking Down NJAC
The Court held that allowing the executive and non-judicial members to have equal say and veto power in judicial appointments undermined judicial independence.
Judicial independence was declared to be part of the Basic Structure of the Constitution.
The criteria for selecting “eminent persons” were vague, creating scope for excessive executive influence.
Since the government is the largest litigant, executive involvement could create reciprocal obligations, threatening judicial impartiality.
As a result, the Supreme Court restored the Collegium system, reaffirming that judicial primacy in appointments is essential to the constitutional framework.
Collegium System vs NJAC
1. Primacy in Appointments
Collegium System: The judiciary enjoys complete primacy in appointments.
NJAC: Judicial primacy was diluted, as executive and non-judicial members had equal participation.
2. Transparency
Collegium System: Operates without published criteria or recorded deliberations, leading to concerns over opacity and lack of accountability.
NJAC: Intended to introduce greater transparency and diversity of perspectives.
3. Veto Power
Collegium System: No formal veto; decisions are based on consensus and reiteration.
NJAC: Any two members, including non-judicial members, could veto a candidate.
4. Risk Factors
Collegium System: Criticised for nepotism, secrecy, and lack of accountability.
NJAC: Risked political interference and erosion of judicial independence.
5. Judicial Independence
Collegium System: Upheld as part of the Basic Structure Doctrine (Kesavananda Bharati, 1973).
NJAC: Declared unconstitutional for compromising judicial independence (2015 judgment).
6. Efficiency
Collegium System: Often faces delays, partly due to government processing and informal consultations.
NJAC: A structured commission was expected to ensure clear timelines and efficiency, though this remained theoretical.
Constitutional Basis for the Appointment of Judges in India
The Constitution of India lays down a detailed framework for the appointment of judges to the Supreme Court and High Courts, ensuring judicial independence while involving constitutional authorities.
Appointment of Supreme Court Judges (Article 124)
Under Article 124, judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President of India after consultation with the Chief Justice of India (CJI) and such other judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts as the President may deem necessary.
Appointment of High Court Judges (Article 217)
According to Article 217, judges of the High Courts are appointed by the President in consultation with:
The Chief Justice of India,
The Governor of the concerned State, and
The Chief Justice of the High Court.
Ad Hoc Judges in the Supreme Court (Article 127)
When there is a lack of quorum in the Supreme Court, the Chief Justice of India, with the consent of the President, may request a High Court judge to sit and act as a judge of the Supreme Court for a temporary period.
Appointment of Acting Chief Justice of India (Article 126)
In case of vacancy, absence, or inability of the CJI to perform duties, the President appoints the senior-most available Supreme Court judge as the Acting Chief Justice of India.
Appointment of Retired Judges (Article 128)
Under Article 128, the Chief Justice of India, with the consent of the President, may request a retired Supreme Court judge to sit and act as a judge of the Supreme Court for a specified period.
Judicial Appointment Procedures (Collegium System)
Appointment of the Chief Justice of India
The outgoing Chief Justice of India recommends the name of the successor, usually based on the principle of seniority, to maintain continuity and avoid controversy.
Appointment of Supreme Court Judges
The Chief Justice of India initiates the recommendation in consultation with Collegium members and the senior-most judge of the High Court from which the candidate is being elevated.
All opinions are recorded in writing. The recommendation is then sent to the Law Minister, followed by the Prime Minister, who advises the President for final appointment.
Appointment of High Court Chief Justices and Judges
The Chief Justice of a High Court is appointed by the President in consultation with the CJI and the Governor of the State.
For puisne (other) High Court judges, the Chief Justice of the concerned High Court is also consulted in addition to the above authorities.
Measures to Strengthen the Judiciary in India
1. National Judicial Policy with a Flexible Federal Design
A National Judicial Policy should establish broad national standards for consistency while allowing High Courts the flexibility to adapt procedures based on regional needs, resources, and caseloads.
2. Institutionalising Case Management and Timelines
Uniform rules should be adopted for case filing, listings, adjournments, and disposal timelines to reduce delays and improve judicial efficiency across courts.
3. Filling Judicial Vacancies Through Time-Bound and Transparent Processes
Whether through reforms in the Collegium system or a future consensual appointments mechanism, judicial appointments must be predictable, criteria-based, and time-bound to address chronic vacancies.
Recent efforts to reclaim degraded land from the Chambal ravines have raised serious concerns. Such interventions expose local communities and biodiversity to increased ecological risks, particularly soil erosion and flooding, due to the fragile nature of ravine landscapes.
About the Chambal River
The Chambal River, known as Charmanvati in ancient times, is one of the major tributaries of the Yamuna River. Located in Central India, it forms an important part of the Gangetic drainage system.
The river is renowned for its clear and pristine waters and is considered one of the cleanest rivers in India.
Course of the Chambal River
The Chambal is a perennial river that originates from Janapav, situated south of Mhow town near Indore, on the southern slopes of the Vindhya Mountain Range in Madhya Pradesh.
From its source, the river flows north-northeast through Madhya Pradesh, passes through Rajasthan, and for a significant stretch forms the boundary between Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. It then turns southeast and finally joins the Yamuna River in Uttar Pradesh.
The Chambal flows through three Indian states—Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. It is also the largest river flowing through Rajasthan.
The total length of the river is approximately 1,024 kilometres.
Drainage Basin and Physiography
The Chambal basin is bounded by the Vindhya mountain ranges to the south, east, and west, while the Aravalli range forms its northwestern boundary.
The river and its tributaries drain the Malwa region of northwestern Madhya Pradesh. One of its major tributaries, the Banas River, rises in the Aravalli Range and drains southeastern Rajasthan.
Tributaries of the Chambal River
Left-bank tributaries: Banas and Mej
Right-bank tributaries: Parbati, Kali Sindh, Shipra
Major Dams on the Chambal River
Several important dams have been constructed on the Chambal River, including:
Gandhi Sagar Dam
Jawahar Sagar Dam
Rana Pratap Sagar Dam
Kota Barrage
These dams are part of the Chambal Valley Project, contributing to irrigation, hydropower generation, and flood control.
Pachnada Confluence
A significant geographical feature is the Pachnada confluence in Uttar Pradesh, where the Chambal meets five rivers—the Kwari, Yamuna, Sind, and Pahuj, along with the Chambal itself.
National Chambal Sanctuary
The National Chambal Sanctuary was established in 1979 and covers about 5,400 square kilometres across Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh.
It is globally important for the conservation of the critically endangered Gharial crocodile. The sanctuary also protects other crocodile species, turtles, and diverse fish fauna.
Additionally, it is a major birdwatching hotspot, hosting over 300 bird species, including the endangered Indian Skimmer.
What is a Ravine?
A ravine is a narrow valley with steep sides, typically formed due to stream bank erosion.
Ravine slopes are often very steep, ranging between 20% and 70% gradient.
In terms of size, ravines are smaller than canyons but larger than gullies.
Conclusion
The Chambal River is a hydrologically, ecologically, and culturally significant river system. While efforts to reclaim ravine land aim at development, they must be carefully managed to avoid erosion, flooding, and biodiversity loss, especially in an ecologically sensitive region like the Chambal basin.
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We provide offline, online and recorded lectures in the same amount.
Every aspirant is unique and the mentoring is customised according to the strengths and weaknesses of the aspirant.
In every Lecture. Director Sir will provide conceptual understanding with around 800 Mindmaps.
We provide you the best and Comprehensive content which comes directly or indirectly in UPSC Exam.
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