A German-Turkish research team recently conducted the first survey of the glacier on Mount Ararat, located in eastern Turkey. The survey is significant for understanding the characteristics and condition of the glacier situated near the summit of this prominent volcanic mountain.

Location and Geographical Importance

Mount Ararat is a volcanic massif located in the extreme eastern part of Turkey. Geographically, it overlooks the region where the frontiers of Turkey, Iran, and Armenia converge, making it an important geographical landmark of the region.

Rising to an elevation of approximately 5,165 metres (16,940 feet), Mount Ararat is the highest mountain in Turkey. It is also the highest mountain in the Armenian Highlands and stands as the highest among the hundreds of mountains found in the surrounding area.

A Mountain of Two Peaks

Mount Ararat is not a single peak but consists of two prominent snow-capped peaks, namely Greater Ararat and Lesser Ararat.

Both Greater Ararat and Lesser Ararat are products of eruptive volcanic activity. Despite their volcanic origin, neither of the two peaks retains any evidence of a crater. However, their volcanic character is reflected in the presence of well-formed cones and fissures on their flanks.

Glacier of Mount Ararat

The mountain also has an important glacial feature. The only true glacier on Mount Ararat is located on the northern side of Greater Ararat, close to its summit.

The recent survey by the German-Turkish research team represents the first survey of this glacier, providing an important scientific examination of the glacier located in the high-altitude environment of Mount Ararat.

Other Names and Volcanic Status

Mount Ararat is a dormant volcano and is also known by the names Mount Agri and Mount Masis. These alternative names are associated with the mountain's geographical and cultural significance in the region.

Recently, the Government of India notified a one-time voluntary disclosure scheme, known as the Foreign Assets of Small Taxpayers – Disclosure Scheme (FAST-DS).

About FAST-DS

The FAST-DS is a one-time voluntary disclosure scheme contained in Chapter IV of the Finance Act, 2026. It provides eligible taxpayers an opportunity to declare certain undisclosed foreign assets, undisclosed foreign income, or undeclared foreign assets by paying the prescribed tax or fee.

The term asset under the scheme includes immovable property, jewellery, artistic works, shares, securities and other assets or income.

Two Categories Covered Under the Scheme

Category 1: Undisclosed Foreign Assets or Income

This category covers an undisclosed foreign asset or foreign income that was not previously offered to tax, provided that the aggregate value does not exceed ₹1 crore.

Under this category, the taxpayer is required to pay 30% of the fair market value of the asset or 30% of the undisclosed income as tax, along with 30% as additional income tax in lieu of penalty. This enables the taxpayer to obtain immunity from prosecution.

Category 2: Foreign Assets Already Taxed but Not Reported

This category covers foreign assets that were already offered to tax or were acquired when the taxpayer was a non-resident, but were not reported in the relevant foreign-asset schedule of the income-tax return.

The threshold for declarations under this category is ₹5 crore.

For such declarations, immunity from both penalty and prosecution is available upon payment of a ₹1 lakh fee.

Immunity under FAST-DS

Taxpayers making valid declarations under the scheme receive immunity from further tax or penalty and from prosecution under the Black Money (Undisclosed Foreign Income and Assets) and Imposition of Tax Act, 2015.

Recently, the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) flagged major shortcomings in the implementation of the Green India Mission (GIM).

About Green India Mission

The Green India Mission (GIM) was launched in 2014 as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme. It is one of the eight missions under the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC).

The mission aims to protect, restore and enhance India’s forest cover while addressing climate change through adaptation and mitigation measures.

Objectives

The GIM focuses on improving important ecosystem services, including biodiversity conservation, water security and carbon sequestration. It also seeks to enhance forest-based livelihoods and improve the economic opportunities available to forest-dependent communities.

Targets

The mission originally envisages increasing forest and tree cover by 5 million hectares and improving the quality of forest and tree cover over another 5 million hectares.

It also targets an enhanced annual CO₂ sequestration of 50–60 million tonnes.

Revised Climate Target

In the context of India’s climate commitments, India has committed to creating an additional carbon sink of 2.5–3 billion tonnes of CO₂ equivalent by 2030 through additional forest and tree cover.

Nodal Ministry

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) is the nodal ministry for implementing the Green India Mission.

A “purification” (Shuddhikaran) ritual at a public venue in Haldwani, Uttarakhand, following its use by Dalit individuals, has sparked debate regarding the constitutional prohibition of untouchability under Article 17.

Idea of Purity and Pollution in the Caste System

Purity and Pollution

The traditional caste hierarchy was historically organised around the concepts of purity (Shuddhi) and pollution (Ashuddhi). Communities placed at the bottom of the caste hierarchy were often associated with occupations involving waste, death and animal carcasses, which reinforced notions of impurity and untouchability.

These beliefs also contributed to spatial segregation, with Dalit communities often being forced to live in separate settlements or on the outskirts of villages. Traditional practices could treat contact or even association with lower-caste individuals as polluting, leading to purification rituals and other discriminatory practices.

Historical Perspectives on Untouchability

Bhakti Movement

Saints such as Ravidas and Kabir challenged caste-based exclusion by emphasising spiritual equality and devotional practices.

Arya Samaj

Swami Dayananda Saraswati regarded untouchability as a post-Vedic corruption and promoted the Shuddhi Movement to reintegrate untouchables and converts into the Hindu fold.

Jyotirao Phule

Through the Satyashodhak Samaj (1873), Jyotirao Phule linked untouchability with social and economic exploitation and emphasised education and empowerment.

Sri Narayana Guru

Sri Narayana Guru challenged ritual hierarchy through the Aruvipuram consecration of 1888 and advocated the principle of “One Caste, One Religion, One God for Humankind.”

Periyar

The Self-Respect Movement (1925) led by Periyar adopted a rationalist and anti-Brahminical approach and called for rejection of caste-based religious authority.

Mahatma Gandhi

Mahatma Gandhi regarded untouchability as a moral sin and promoted social reform through the Harijan Sevak Sangh, temple-entry movements and social integration. Initially, however, he distinguished the issue of untouchability from the broader Varna system.

Constitutional and Legal Provisions

Article 17

Article 17 of the Constitution, which forms part of the Right to Equality under Articles 14–18, abolishes untouchability in all forms and makes its enforcement a punishable offence. Importantly, Article 17 can operate against private individuals as well as the State.

The Constitution does not provide a specific definition of “untouchability”, allowing the law to address its complex and evolving manifestations.

Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955

The Untouchability (Offences) Act, 1955, later renamed the Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955, was enacted to give effect to Article 17. It prescribes punishments for preaching and practising untouchability and for enforcing religious or social disabilities based on untouchability.

SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989

The SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 provides additional legal protection to members of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Section 7(1)(d) specifically addresses insulting or attempting to insult an SC member on the ground of untouchability.

However, the offence must be intrinsically connected with the social practice of untouchability and cannot be treated as merely a generic form of humiliation.

National Commission for Scheduled Castes

The National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC) is a constitutional body established under Article 338. It monitors, investigates and safeguards the rights of Scheduled Castes and possesses powers similar to those of a civil court for certain purposes.

Important Judicial Pronouncements

Surya Narayan Choudhary v. State of Rajasthan, 1989

The Rajasthan High Court held that requiring Dalits to undergo a purification ritual before temple entry violated Articles 14, 15 and 17, as the condition was discriminatory and was not imposed on other devotees.

Hitesh Verma v. State of Uttarakhand, 2020

The Supreme Court held that an insult against an SC/ST person does not automatically constitute an offence under the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989. The insult must be connected with the person's caste identity and satisfy the statutory requirements.

Sukanya Shantha v. Union of India, 2024

The Supreme Court struck down caste-based discriminatory practices in prison manuals and clarified that untouchability is not restricted to physical exclusion.

It can also encompass discrimination based on a person's caste, touch or presence, particularly where such practices are rooted in notions of purity and pollution.

Gunjan @ Girija Kumari v. State (NCT of Delhi), 2026

The Supreme Court held that the relevant offences under the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 require the act to occur “in any place within public view.”

Challenges in Eliminating Untouchability

Emergence of Covert Discrimination

Traditional forms of untouchability, such as denial of access to wells or temples, have declined in visibility, but discrimination has increasingly taken institutional and subtle forms.

These may include spatial segregation in housing, caste-based matrimonial practices, systemic bias in employment and discrimination in academic spaces.

Graded Inequality

The caste system operates through an ascending scale of privilege and a descending scale of social status. Such graded inequality can also result in differences in disadvantage among Scheduled Castes.

In State of Punjab v. Davinder Singh (2024), the Supreme Court recognised that SCs are not a homogeneous group and permitted States to sub-classify SCs for a more equitable distribution of reservation benefits.

Criminal Justice Challenges

Despite the existence of stringent laws, effective enforcement can be hindered by under-registration or dilution of cases, witness vulnerability and structural bias within parts of the investigating and judicial machinery.

Economic Dependence

Landlessness and economic dependence on dominant castes can increase vulnerability to social boycotts and coercion. Such circumstances may also force victims towards extra-judicial compromises.

Measures to Curb Untouchability

Accountability of Public Officials

The effective use of Section 4 of the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act can strengthen accountability where public servants neglect their duties in registering or investigating cases.

Economic Empowerment

Economic empowerment can reduce structural dependence. The Public Procurement Policy for MSEs (2012) provides for 4% of government procurement from SC/ST-owned MSMEs, while initiatives such as Stand-Up India and the Venture Capital Fund for Scheduled Castes can support entrepreneurship and economic mobility.

Equal Opportunity

The Madhava Menon Committee (2007) recommended an Equal Opportunity Commission to address discriminatory practices, including in the private sector.

Constitutional Morality

Legal measures alone may not be sufficient to eliminate deeply embedded social attitudes. Promoting constitutional morality through education and social awareness can help challenge entrenched notions of purity and pollution.

Social Integration

Greater encouragement and protection of inter-caste marriages can contribute to social integration. The Dr Ambedkar Scheme for Social Integration through Inter-Caste Marriages is cited as an instrument for promoting such integration.

Special Courts

The establishment of Exclusive Special Courts and stronger witness protection mechanisms can help address delays and improve the effectiveness of trials under the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act.

Conclusion

The constitutional abolition of untouchability under Article 17 represents a fundamental commitment to social equality and human dignity. However, eliminating its contemporary manifestations requires not only effective legal enforcement but also economic empowerment, social integration and constitutional morality

The Government of India has invited 100 beneficiaries of PM Vishwakarma from the Delhi-NCR region as Special Guests to witness the 80th Independence Day Ceremony at the Red Fort, Delhi.

About PM Vishwakarma Scheme

The PM Vishwakarma Scheme is a Central Sector Scheme launched by the Government of India in 2023. It aims to provide comprehensive support to artisans and craftspeople engaged in traditional trades across the country.

The scheme seeks to promote the socio-economic empowerment of artisans, strengthen India's traditional crafts and ensure sustainable livelihoods for people dependent on these occupations.

Nodal Ministry and Duration

The scheme is implemented under the Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSME).

It has a duration of five years, covering the period from FY 2023–24 to FY 2027–28.

Eligibility and Coverage

PM Vishwakarma is available to rural and urban artisans and craftspeople across India. It covers 18 traditional trades, including Boat Maker, Armourer, Blacksmith, Hammer and Tool Kit Maker, among others.

Generally, beneficiaries must be 18 years or above, be engaged in one of the specified traditional trades and satisfy the scheme's conditions regarding previous similar loans.

Key Features of PM Vishwakarma

Recognition of Artisans

The scheme provides formal recognition to eligible artisans through a PM Vishwakarma Certificate and ID Card. This helps establish their identity as traditional artisans and facilitates access to various scheme benefits.

Skill Upgradation

Beneficiaries receive Basic Training of 5–7 days and Advanced Training of 15 days or more. During training, beneficiaries receive a stipend of ₹500 per day.

Toolkit Incentive

A toolkit incentive of up to ₹15,000 is provided through e-vouchers at the beginning of Basic Skill Training. This enables artisans to acquire modern and improved tools for their traditional occupations.

Credit Support

The scheme provides collateral-free Enterprise Development Loans of up to ₹3 lakh in two tranches. The first tranche provides ₹1 lakh, while the second tranche provides ₹2 lakh.

These loans are offered at a concessional interest rate of 5%.

Digital and Market Support

PM Vishwakarma also promotes digital enablement and provides market linkages to help artisans adopt digital transactions, improve their market access and expand the reach of their traditional products.